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[{"id":"c53b5ba604fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Lessons","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons","description":"a ","text":""},{"id":"c5443be004fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Medical Microbiology","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/medical-microbiology","description":"Upon completing this lesson, you should be able to:\tDescribe the features and characteristics of the Streptococci\tDescribe the features and characteristics of the Staphyolococci\tDesc","text":"completing lesson should describe features characteristics streptococci staphyolococci bacilli taxonomic class bacteria includes orders bacillales lactobacillales which contain several known pathogens bacillus anthracis cause anthrax almost exclusively positive "},{"id":"c56d519c04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Parade of Diseases","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/medical-microbiology\/parade-of-diseases","description":"","text":"stage semester enough information presented finally understand features significant human pathogens starting cells bacterial discussed bacteria carry metabolism developed understanding genetic traits passed other control microbial growth environment around inside through antibiotics sought immune system defends microbes overcome those defenses cause infections these diseases progress population really disease causing serious humans there organisms cover introductory course however lessons common insidious "},{"id":"c596043404fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Staphylococcal Diseases","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/medical-microbiology\/staphylococcal-diseases","description":"","text":"common staphylococcal lesion localized abcess often starting folliculitis inflammation follicle infection deeper tissues leading larger furuncle carbuncle these lanced drain another cellulitis dermis subcutaneous layers comes tenderness swelling finally staphs combine certain streptococci cause impetigo characterized easily spread contagious lesions sometimes location serious condition called scalded syndrome strains staph aureus contain phage includes exfoliative toxin released systemically leads blistering loosening across patches newborns almost resembles patient portions toxic shock orginally 1970 39 unknown illness women using brand tampon known caused staphylococcus anyone signs defines exibiting sudden fever sunburn peeling hands blood pressure multisytem organ failure while treatable overwhelm defenses quickly rapid detection necessary poisonings ingestion preformed therefore considered intoxication event incubation period short anywhere 8 10 hours symptoms include nausea violent vomiting diarrhea there involved recovery typically poisoning mistaken agreee person unreported "},{"id":"c706116a04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Pneumococcus","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/medical-microbiology\/pneumococcus","description":"Streptococcus pnuemoniae, affectionately known as Pnuemoccus, is a major cause of bacterial pneumonia. It is the second leading cause of meningitis behind Nieseria and causes other types ","text":"streptococcus pnuemoniae affectionately known pnuemoccus major cause bacterial pneumonia second leading meningitis behind nieseria causes other types infections positive diplococci capsule which virulence factor larger dangerous particular strain these bacteria found upper respiratory tract animals require elevated levels co2 growth mimics their natural habitat alpha hemolytic blood sensitive optochin makes useful clinical distinguish organism streps secrete pneumolysin toxin slows action cilia leads buildup mucus fluids tissue creating perfect environment eventually bleeding lungs allows entry bloodstream disease complications bacteremia progresses stages mortality between 10 15 "},{"id":"c718578004fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Bacillus anthracis","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/medical-microbiology\/bacillus-anthracis","description":"","text":"organism responsible anthrax disease bacillus anthracis positive endospore forming while pathogen difficult control spores present environment nearly impossible eradicate place animal released blown about virulence factors associated capsule makes potent exotoxin causes massive tissue damage strains toxin produce human classified according portal entry there cutaneous inhaled gastrointestinal version endospores enter through break simple insect introduce become vegetative cells begin reproduce secrete first forms pimple larger vesicle hemorrhagic bluish black finally ruptures dries sharp edged swollen ulcer center called eschar class cases bloodstream youre going inhalation another matter woolsorters someone comes contact animals skins dusty conditions lungs local years imported bongo drums which contaminated luckily germinate destroy lesions organ ususally leads death ingestion inside reach results mortality rates 50 variation relates being treatable caught early obvious anyone lesion scary looking seeks given immediately antibiotics excellent often appear other illnesses doctors dozen options infection worrying thing consider cause unrecognized until typically states along coast midwest california terribly common thousand worldwide majority 95 almost entirely people working agriculture ranching vaccine available exclusively military personnel civilian contractors biowarfare defense arena potential bioterror agent lethality difficulty eradicating office building however really dangerous weaponizing centers creating enough microbiology student could isolate turing aerosolized weapon extraordinarily "},{"id":"c72cb9a004fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Streptococcal Diseases","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/medical-microbiology\/streptococcal-diseases","description":"","text":"pathogenic group streps streptococcus pyogenes cause variety clinical diseases grouped based result damage somtimes induce overreaction defenses sometimes disease dependant portal entry types diseses caused streptococci summarized below uterus during childbirth puerperal fever childbed first concerns early microbiologists louis pasteur ignaz semmelweis 5 10 mothers giving birth today antibiotics other birthing complications outweigh patient dying infection enter though breaks leads contagious condition called impetigo erysipelas cellulitis these lesions often colonized staphylococcus aureus common infections simple strep throat becomes people children adults still subacute subclinical meaning routinely develop noticeable symptoms tendency otitis media potentially meningitis serious brain older pronounced soreness basically feeling tonsilitis their tonsils removed prevent continuous reocurrences cases bacterial strain produce erythrogenic toxin scarlet stimulate immune system react inappropriately which causes significant acute glomerulonephritis problem several weeks after previously mentioned antibodies produced against protein surface filter portions kidney attempt target streptococcal targeting kidneys another example attack rheumatic respiratory production joints parts heart including valves anyone diagnosed careful would second third causing joint "},{"id":"c74f338604fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Streptococci","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/medical-microbiology\/streptococci","description":"","text":"streptococci include large number medically important bacterial species positive cocci found pairs chains facultative anaerobes oxygen environments aerobic metabolism produce enzyme catalase hemolysin break blood cells release catalse inside ability gives methods classify streps hemolysis pattern there 3 types patterns alpha gamma complete destruction which pathogenic streptococcus letter photo incomplete typically indicate looks discolored greenish hemoglobin shown normal flora viridans hemolytic unless accidentally bloodstream finally catetory reaction another method categorize extensive streptoccci developed 1930s rebecca lancefield surveyed surface carbohydrates grouping system places groups group hemolysins others pathogens feature protein structure membrane resembles fimbriae allows attach surfaces steps infection cycle lipoteichoic virulence factor attachment capsule contains hyaluronic commonly connective tissue avoid phagocytosis effect immune recognize attack taken together these factors allow bacteria block responses enzymes toxins produced digest fibers while degrade streptolysin concentration holes membranes white complement cascade works erythrogenic toxin causes scarlet fever encoded lysogenic phage virus remains dormant within genetic trait bacteral itself chromosome patient "},{"id":"c75eafbe04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Staphylococci","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/medical-microbiology\/staphylococci","description":"","text":"staphylococci include large number medically important bacterial species positive cocci which found clusters facultative organisms easily culture produce their catalase enzymes while there different staphylococcal break pathogenic staph staphylococcus aureus epidermidis normal flora hemolytic ferment sugar mannitol degrade coagulase these things distinguising features ability cause clumping blood plasma using enzyme initiates clotting cascade result coating fibrin protein around thought protect immune system considered pathogen laboratory shown below another characteristic staphs variety damage causing toxins example exfoliative toxin effects tissue causes layers separate bullous exfoliation great blister thing leads loosening peeling requiring treatment almost patient common produced enterotoxin subtype exotoxin strains withstand brief boiling degredation stomach passes intestinal tract where significant abdominal discomfort addition production extra dangerous buildup antibiotic resistance since commonly capable disease adding resist antibiotics makes particularly organism methicillin resistant staphyloccus banes hospitals modern medicine spread possibly surface highly particular interest hospital settings nosocomial transmitted diseases worse recent years people contracting outside general community control methods harder maintain "},{"id":"c8628c4604fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Enteric Bacilli","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/medical-microbiology\/enteric-bacilli","description":"","text":"enteric bacilli collection negative inhabit intestinal tract humans animals normal flora opportunistic pathogens profiled salmonella significant cause poisoning shigella causative agent dysentary common organism strains pathogenic these bacterial species different possible telling apart important epidemiological tracking outbreaks categorized based 3 antigenic markers marker flagella alone 50 types antigen 150 capsule kapsel german 90 strain identified number o1 k1 h7 would example sometimes leave 39 o157 associated particular outbreak virulent others estimated 000 cases infections worldwide 500 fatal mostly developing nations 10 fatality become infected fecal route tranmsission contaminated water there three forms disease first being fevers typhoid gastroenteritis septicemia caused typhi exposure followed couple incubation period leading fever achiness headache cough other symptoms lasts becomes focus point after another severe discomfort illness generally resolve itself third unless patient severely dehydrated perforation bowel mortality relatively however since bladder routinely recovered remain carrier state without aware about those carriers rather famous people before authorities track treat early epidemiology found modern institutions county health departments poultry products while quite unpleasant begin 12 hours appearing course infection something organims involved typhimurium enteritidis their swine reptiles basic sanitary precautions necessary prevent spread thoroughly cooking careful washing hands kitchen implements usually trick handful specific called shigellosis bacillary dysentery similar typically particularly include watery stool contains blood mucus nausea vomiting intense abdominal typical unlike where ingest numbers cells hundred tolerant stomach acids through small intestine multiply short produce exotoxin shigatoxin degrades lining enough right situation poisonings dealing drink paramount supply critical effective sewage treatment reasons signs restaurant bathrooms employees human hygenic conditions which prevented controls handlers escherichia predominant facultative bacterium normally considered harmless 4 groups enteroinvasive invade epithelial diease enterotoxigenic toxin cholera distubs balance colon volume diarrhea enteropahtogenic attachment disrupts function enterohemorrhagic produces shiga category concern commonly reported urinary hemolytic syndrome kidney failure control rests prevention handling clean supplies sanitation preventing diseases countries quality travel often exposed organisms levels accustomed bottled traveling beverage planning someone experiencing travellers montezuma revenge aztec 2 dehli belly gringo gallop "},{"id":"c546685204fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Chemistry and Cell Biology","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/chemistry-and-cell-biology","description":"","text":""},{"id":"c71d5ff004fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Basic Chemistry","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/chemistry-and-cell-biology\/basic-chemistry","description":"","text":"completing lesson should describe parts atoms common elements letter abbreviations behavior compare contrast 3 kinds chemical bonds properties water define saturation acids bases major organic compounds structure function 4 basic enzymes functions provide energy focuses number areas related chemistry review order build another these topics while others either learn fundamentals needed course "},{"id":"c880062204fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Chemical Bonding","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/chemistry-and-cell-biology\/basic-chemistry\/chemical-bonding","description":"","text":"chemical bonding based interaction between atoms 39 electrons orbit around nucleus allow interact other linked together example h2o consists oxygen 2 hydrogen linkage called click image below learn about three types bonds "},{"id":"c89150c604fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Atoms and Ions","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/chemistry-and-cell-biology\/basic-chemistry\/atoms-and-ions","description":"","text":"atoms basic chemistry consist 3 smaller components protons these positively charged electrons negatively neutrons charge particles arranged particular center nucleus where positive neutral orbit around found series orbits depending differing numbers figure below human couple dollars worth chemicals 12 useful about listed sometimes loses gains negative called occurs electron following image shows losing gaining becomes examples common sodium potassium chloride calcium phosphorous "},{"id":"c8a2cbb204fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Properties of Water","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/chemistry-and-cell-biology\/basic-chemistry\/properties-of-water","description":"Covalent bonds form when atoms share electrons. Sometimes this sharing is not equal and leads to the formation of partial charges on molecules.Consider water. The electron associated with the h","text":"covalent bonds atoms share electrons sometimes sharing equal leads formation partial charges molecules consider water electron associated hydrogen tends spend orbiting oxygen doesnt result unequally shared therefore partly extra making slightly negative positive opposite attract opposites attraction between parts allows polar nonpolar substances since different molecule substance interact hydrophilic loving lacks hydrophobic hating attracted other exhibits property called surface tension resist attempt separate easily beads something sphere saturation though considered strong numbers cases weaker overcome stronger sugar dissolves occurs there longer enough ionic dissolve certain amount eventually interfere holding crystals together individual added crystal shape bottom container "},{"id":"c8bd988404fa11e388620050569d0","title":"pH: Acids and Bases","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/chemistry-and-cell-biology\/basic-chemistry\/ph-acids-and-bases","description":"The pH of a solution is determined by measuring the relative number of Hydrogen Ions (H+) present. The more Hydrogen Ions (H+) there are the more acidic a solution is.WaterWhere do Hydrogen Ions (","text":"solution determined measuring relative number hydrogen present there acidic water where really h2o splits hydroxyl equal parts leading 1 ratio neutral 7 sometimes other chemicals dissolved pieces result contain change acids solutions hydrochloric chloride extra gives changed turns bases sodium hydroxide shifts fewer normal becomes basic anything thats degrade organic matter tissues destroyed cells least function properly "},{"id":"c8cdbde004fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Conjugated Enzymes","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/chemistry-and-cell-biology\/basic-chemistry\/conjugated-enzymes","description":"","text":"sometimes enzymes function properly without extra components called conjugated these items cofactors which consist another protein working enzyme itself inorganic element magnesium metallic bring active substrate together product formed times derived vitamins important nutrition vitamin deficiencies inhibit inside "},{"id":"c8d0479a04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Organic Compounds","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/chemistry-and-cell-biology\/basic-chemistry\/organic-compounds","description":"","text":"organic inorganic molecules contain carbon ch4 formula methane common table compounds there basic build cells carbohydrates lipids proteins nucleic acids macromolecule reviewed remainder lesson "},{"id":"c8e4891204fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Carbohydrates","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/chemistry-and-cell-biology\/basic-chemistry\/carbohydrates","description":"","text":"carbohydrates energy production build necessary components carbons formed structures these linked together chains disaccharides sucrose polysaccharides starch cellulose polysaccharide differ slightly different types bonds makes enough easily digested humans while other which digest common plants "},{"id":"ca27c91a04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Lipids","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/chemistry-and-cell-biology\/basic-chemistry\/lipids","description":"","text":"there three types lipids fatty acids triglycerides phospholipids carbon chains different lengths polar hydrophobic clump together water 39 triglyceride linked glycerol phospholipid remove phosphorous instead organize themselves unique partly tails because bilayer micelle round construct membranes animation below learn about "},{"id":"ca3b26e004fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Proteins","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/chemistry-and-cell-biology\/basic-chemistry\/proteins","description":"","text":"proteins building chains amino acids structure includes chain attached central carbon having different there twenty types shown below following characteristics linked together peptide bonds special covalent found sometimes called polypeptides after acides constructed complex structures levels protein primary exact sequence before folding secondary simple creates coils sheets tertiary results 3d quaternary multiple subunits organized bigger example hemoglobin carries oxygen blood specific proper function depends correct change cause differently shape sickle anemia disease caused improperly folded "},{"id":"ca4b054204fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Enzymes","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/chemistry-and-cell-biology\/basic-chemistry\/enzymes","description":"","text":"enzymes proteins specifically shaped carry special functions cells accelerate chemical reactions necessary needs specific metabolic reaction enzyme changes their shape effectively proper protein function depends correct 3d structure especially important activity vital defects include sickle anemia cystic fibrosis substrate convert product "},{"id":"ca5787b804fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Nucleic Acids","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/chemistry-and-cell-biology\/basic-chemistry\/nucleic-acids","description":"","text":"direct activity cells example contains directions genes cause function certain nucleic acids three parts carbohydrate pentose 5 carbon sugar single nitrogen containing possibilities phosphorous linked together chains parallel these twist often called double helix "},{"id":"ca71282604fa11e388620050569d0","title":"ATP","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/chemistry-and-cell-biology\/basic-chemistry\/atp","description":"","text":"molecule needed cells require energy stored molecules rechargeable battery charged released converted adenosine phosphate animation later store reform "},{"id":"c73191e604fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Basic Cell Biology","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/chemistry-and-cell-biology\/basic-cell-biology","description":"","text":" after completing modules cells should explain differences between prokaryotic eucaryotic structure function plasma membrane describe concept diffusion define concentration 39 relationship among three types transport systems processes exocytosis endocytosis osmosis cases osmotic effects functions cellular organelles chromosome"},{"id":"c86a0d1804fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Transport of Water","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/chemistry-and-cell-biology\/basic-cell-biology\/transport-of-water","description":"","text":"39 water cross membrane cells however inside surrounded would bother though easily other called osmosis force drives direction another across osmotic pressure membranes allow things while cannot without selectively permeable reacts concentration molecules trapped tends towards higher picture below shows glass container there bottom prevents glucose moving mimics represents environment outside gradient according diffusion should equalize imbalance recall dependant 1 amount substance 2 something concentrated either remove material space dilute think having psychological situation balanced since spread solution level moves effort pretend impulse "},{"id":"c8773de404fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Osmotic Pressure","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/chemistry-and-cell-biology\/basic-cell-biology\/osmotic-pressure","description":"","text":"cells themselves 3 different situations regarding osmotic pressure solution where there equal concentration solute inside outside higher lower isotonic perfectly balanced water change shape hypertonic situation environment means tends compared moves makes shrink inhibits activity hypotonic begins swell actually burst "},{"id":"c87dda0a04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Types of cells","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/chemistry-and-cell-biology\/basic-cell-biology\/types-of-cells","description":"","text":" basic structure living things there different kinds cells relatively simple others fairly complex procaryotic bacteria highly eucaryotic other specialized internal structures called organelles animals plants viruses simplest organisms virus organism fewest components cannot replicate itself considered obligate intracellular parasites first access where machinery presents interesting problems immune system which discussed later"},{"id":"c886890c04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Cellular Organelles","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/chemistry-and-cell-biology\/basic-cell-biology\/cellular-organelles","description":"","text":"discussed earlier eucaryotic cells complex plants animals these types number specialized internal structures perform specific organelles little organs found cytoplasm additionally project outside itself nucleus where stores genetic information chromosomes ribosomes proteins endoplasmic reticulum comes forms smooth rough surface mitochondria convert sugar which anytime requires energy golgi organelle sorts produced delivers their final destination cilia forth substances across flagella propel place another sperm around images below plant green animal mitrochondria apparatus labeled "},{"id":"c899bbd004fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Chromosomes","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/chemistry-and-cell-biology\/basic-cell-biology\/chromosomes","description":"","text":"living organisms contain genetic material often organized structure contains information necessary survival organism carried cells stored nucleus eukaryotic large structures called chromosomes extremely strings tightly packed together visible undergoes division these unwound under regular microscope entire collection genome human consists close 25 000 genes encoded 3 billion pairs 46 project attempting decade humans whats anyway "},{"id":"c8ac004c04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Genes","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/chemistry-and-cell-biology\/basic-cell-biology\/genes","description":"","text":" genetic heredity variety different sometimes genes discuss certain physical characteristics athlete speed endurance 39 describing innate ability describe appearance person looking smart because stock meaning their parents intelligent scientists about coding information tells produce something particular muscle cells products strong contractions which makes course training important codes production protein function enzyme enzymes chemistry gives features allow whole characteristic color controlled producing carrying blond equal everyone copies another necessarily identical example wouldn differences slight variation other brunette become depends rules worked fellow named gregor mendel later called allele blonde alleles variations functioning defective there cystic fibrosis considered malfunctioning turns disease properly threatening illness enough however trait children bacteria circular chromosome multiple organisms adept picking sources allows change immediately simple restricted"},{"id":"c8c6adde04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Chromosome Number","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/chemistry-and-cell-biology\/basic-cell-biology\/chromosome-number","description":"The total number of chromosomes a cell has varies by the species of the organism. Some species have more chromosomes than another. That does not mean an organism with more chromosomes has more genes h","text":"total number chromosomes varies species organism another genes however chimpanzees potatoes 48 chimpanzee potato genome broken smaller parts bacteria represented single chromosome sometimes circular called plasmids viruses worse carry handful altogether "},{"id":"ca773f4a04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Plasma Membrane","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/chemistry-and-cell-biology\/basic-cell-biology\/plasma-membrane","description":"","text":"physical boundary plasma membrane encloses fluid environment cytoplasm found inside cells double layer phospholipids arranged certain pattern polar groups tails makes molecule neurotic placed water stable formations phospholipid bilayer formed outside while proteins embedded different kinds these serve variety important functions signaling transport regulating controlling activities organ systems insulin protein binds helps control glucose levels blood process functioning properly diabetes results other function involves vital regulate nutrients across enters leaves selectively permeable since large portion nonpolar regions things cannot easily cross anything problem passing through alcohol steriods freely however particularly strongly region remember compounds include molecules carbohydrates amino acids small charges exception rules weakly relatively therefore "},{"id":"ca85c3e404fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Diffusion","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/chemistry-and-cell-biology\/basic-cell-biology\/diffusion","description":"","text":"before describing differences between simple facilitated diffusion 39 worth taking meaning describes movement atoms place another makes molecule anywhere molecules people tightly packed together spread until uniformly distributed throughout enclosed space yourself around clustered empty seats concentration description number things given amount concentrated depends about students 30 small which 10 closet 100 000 large stadium necessarily obvious answer having tendency areas where coloring glass water happens initially slowly initial adjacent there fewer sometimes something being nearby gradient often gradients classrooms class would probably front moving "},{"id":"ca92e4f204fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Membrane Transport Systems","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/chemistry-and-cell-biology\/basic-cell-biology\/membrane-transport-systems","description":"","text":"there several mechanisms allow cells things cannot cross membrane themselves simple diffusion including osmosis facilitated active transport mechanism takes advantage principle molecules concentration therefore molecule gradient desired direction outside lower inside before anything enter capable crossing recall polar energy required cases where interest through example would sodium which needed extra requirement finding getting thorough occur specially designed protein channel inserted functions something rules another catch theres differently every different needs proteins built shape shaped channels available method across moved requires input stored passed backwards amino acids already still leave against using allows increase trying water basement raining running cracks bring gravity sometimes refer pumps atpase "},{"id":"ca9cf03204fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Bulk Membrane Transport","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/chemistry-and-cell-biology\/basic-cell-biology\/bulk-membrane-transport","description":"","text":"transport mechanisms outlined moving materials across membrane molecule there other methods amounts molecules these special cases describe exact mechanism defined which direction things cells bring endocytosis expel material exterior 39 called exocytosis begins dimpled pushed interest collect depression dimple deeper until upper pinched trapping inside plasma vesicle process reverse produces stores vesicles found moves makes contact fuses cellular forms allows contents leave itself absorbed participate later "},{"id":"c548bfe404fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Genetics","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/genetics","description":"","text":"genetics complex parts course broken 3 molecular describe basic genetic processes cells undergo every process understood possible discuss happens these errors leads mutation final section discusses issues specific bacteria exchange acquire information their neighbors little extra needed adequately cover particular "},{"id":"c588857a04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Molecular Genetics","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/genetics\/molecular-genetics","description":"","text":"learning objectives describe structure central dogma biology process replication transcription translation watch episode click download print transcript movie "},{"id":"c88d972404fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Transcription \/ Translation in Prokaryotes","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/genetics\/molecular-genetics\/transcription-translation-in-prokaryotes","description":"","text":"unlike eukaryotes bacteria other prokaryotes separate storage chromosomes transcription takes place nucleus translation endoplasmic reticulum these structures there reason locations processes directly linked before finished ribosomes attach begin first ribosome moves distance along another start translating eventually whole chain process completed looks something series railroad moving different stages completing "},{"id":"c893628a04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Structure of DNA","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/genetics\/molecular-genetics\/structure-of-dna","description":"","text":"double stranded molecule chains nucleotides there 4 strand connected other hydrogen bonds structure coils helix shape spiral staircase "},{"id":"c8a0772204fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Genetic Material","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/genetics\/molecular-genetics\/genetic-material","description":"","text":"genetic information living organisms contained nucleic acids common although viruses allows control internal metabolism chemistry chromosome organized piece contains chromosomes large structures found within cells carry instructions stored inside different eukaryotic there linear nucleus fungi protozoa plasmids plant chloroplasts while mitochondria animal contain prokaryotic typically single circular basic material these click enlarge called genes direct organismal development function heredity needed specific protein proteins often enzymes collection given organism genome other terms remember include phenotype which physical appearance characteristic color particular would brown bacterium killed penicillin antibiotic resistant genotype refer makeup humans everything essentially backup copies dominat trait individual could offspring children bacteria follow pattern "},{"id":"c8a51af204fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Central Dogma","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/genetics\/molecular-genetics\/central-dogma","description":"All living cells perform several basic functions. Two of these are reproduction and carrying out basic cellular functions. From a genetics perspective, all cells are able to reproduce by making an exa","text":"living cells perform several basic functions these reproduction carrying cellular genetics perspective reproduce making exact genes formed after division replication fundamental process carried beyond replicating information contained build protein first desired transcription decoded specific instructions connecting amino acids together order decoding called translation "},{"id":"c8b0a8cc04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Gene Splicing","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/genetics\/molecular-genetics\/gene-splicing","description":"","text":"eukaryotes additional transcription process prokaryotes eukaryotic takes place nucleus before newly leaves undergoes transcriptional processing bases unprocessed useful final protein product these regions coding letters intervening sequences introns portions needed called exons broken smaller useless first removed special enzymes spliceosomes remove stitch together finished ready translated directions build specific click enlarge"},{"id":"c8c028a604fa11e388620050569d0","title":"DNA Replication","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/genetics\/molecular-genetics\/dna-replication","description":"","text":"process replication begins separating strands enzyme called helicase enzymes topoisomerases unwind double helix structure these depicted below begin copying primase inserts short piece preformed primer necessary other assemble chain nucleotides primers position polymerase moves along exposed single strand reads letters proper nucleotide letter matching continues until entire copied "},{"id":"c8d2a47204fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Transcription","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/genetics\/molecular-genetics\/transcription","description":"","text":"process transcription somewhat similar replication double stranded first separated helicase possible strands copied polymerase enzyme complete helix restored after having molecule there couple important differences though called since making strand single resulting messenger another difference introduction 5th matches different nucleotide instead normal would inserted inserts uracil rsquo "},{"id":"c8e0255c04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Translation: Code of Life","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/genetics\/molecular-genetics\/translation-code-of-life","description":"","text":"genetic series 4 bases arranged 3 letters makes 64 unique letter combinations however there 20 commonly amino acids several codes designate following chart details codons their corresponding these green called start codon three other finding possible exact sequence construct specific protein "},{"id":"c8e67fb004fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Translation: Codons","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/genetics\/molecular-genetics\/translation-codons","description":"","text":"translation complex three processes performed living cells single stranded ready decoding string letters contained translated specific instructions hooking together series amino acids chain protein 3 forms codon represents codons along exactly which placed sequence "},{"id":"ca2a388a04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Translation Process","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/genetics\/molecular-genetics\/translation-process","description":"","text":"before discussing process translation there parts assembly discussed ribosome factory proteins translated amino acids physically connected other protein shells subunit bottom together strand addition holes drilled called locations where placed order chain another important component transfer single forms particular cloverleaf shape 3 nucleotides anticodon three specific codon attached animation below shows attention sequence events "},{"id":"ca68fca004fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Replication: Prokaryotes","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/genetics\/molecular-genetics\/replication-prokaryotes","description":"DNA replication in prokaryotes presents some interesting complications. In bacteria, the chromosome is a round circle in appearance. Since there is no end to start from the DNA polymerase enzymes need","text":"replication prokaryotes presents interesting complications bacteria chromosome round circle appearance since there start polymerase enzymes place begin happens origin double stranded separated primers inserted polymerases synthesizing strands opposite directions forks click enlarge proceed around eventually stage completed circular chromosomes bacterial cells divides"},{"id":"c5b6383a04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Bacterial Genetics","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/genetics\/bacterial-genetics","description":"","text":"learning objectives define recombinant recombination describe process transformation explain differences between generalized specialized transduction plamsids distinguish transposon bacteria especially suited variety environments exist corners planet places develop appropriate genes survival result capable acquiring using number organism acquires capability comes either mutation existing which gives advantage steal somewhere occurs incorporates another source essentially merged become piece information called efficient characteristic simply adopted could enhanced destroyed "},{"id":"ca23638404fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Transformation","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/genetics\/bacterial-genetics\/transformation","description":"","text":"bacteria ultimate scavengers environments often short required nutrients nucleic acids ability absorb naked normally would broken reused sometimes however incorporated bacterial chromosome following shows known experiment griffith demonstrated property different strains capsule other capsules difficult immune system fight infection mouse injected forming organism shown strain lacking lives disease causing heated harmed living harmless mixed dangerous combination cause happen these separately happened cominbed deadly recovered producing found could apparently acquired cells start example transformation "},{"id":"ca35297a04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Generalized Transduction","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/genetics\/bacterial-genetics\/generalized-transduction","description":"","text":"another method allows genes transferred bacterial virus accidentally transfers there viruses infect animal cells plant bacteria called bacteriophage phage understanding process requires background cannot replicate their replicating machinery things produced genetic information duplicated protein parts needed shell manufactured viral replication finished assembled particles released other infection involve destruction chromosome lobotomized control comes assemble particle inserted sometimes chopped instead infects thats introduced bacterium recombination occurs generalized transduction click image enlarge"},{"id":"ca4637f604fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Conjugation: F Plasmids","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/genetics\/bacterial-genetics\/conjugation-f-plasmids","description":"","text":"process complicated probably specialized bacteria contain extra found circular called plasmids previously these described containing different potentially useful genes antibiotic resistance degredative enzymes allow special metabolism certain pathogenic factors production capsule bacterial chromosome which replicated before division acquires plasmid daughter cells fertility those contains ability itself another first forming pilus connects bridge between passed through tunnel since double stranded strand where serves template synthesize other replication becomes click enlarge "},{"id":"ca5199fc04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Conjugation: Hfr Transfer","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/genetics\/bacterial-genetics\/conjugation-hfr-transfer","description":"","text":"sometimes fertility plasmid inserts itself bacterial chromosome becomes recombinant happens called frequency normally insert extracts transfer another reinserts happen times occasionally though takes passes first cells again transduction bacterium accidentally transferred "},{"id":"ca97030204fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Specialized Transduction","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/genetics\/bacterial-genetics\/specialized-transduction","description":"","text":"sometimes cycle phage involves extra different typical lysogenic sequence viral infection genes become incorporated chromosome results formation prophage whereby insert specific bacterial virus enters lytic takes chromosomal leads transfer completes leaves process depicted below click enlarge transduction intentionally transfers another "},{"id":"caa2d46604fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Transposons","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/genetics\/bacterial-genetics\/transposons","description":"","text":"these transposable elements genes ability around place another within chromosome sometimes plasmid would transferred somtimes transposon replicates itself before moves other times encode variety features including antigenic characteristics colony morphology color importantly antibiotic resistance click enlarge"},{"id":"c73f106e04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Mutations","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/genetics\/mutations","description":"","text":"learning objectives define mutation explain differences between point frameshift mutations describe effects causes analogs occur works repair mechanisms"},{"id":"c870a98404fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Repair Mechanisms","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/genetics\/mutations\/repair-mechanisms","description":"","text":"cells enzymes capable finding repairing incorrect pairing prevent mutation common mutations comes light causes thymine dimer formation repair mechanism called excision involves ironically require function enzyme complex locates removes offending while another insterts correct nucleotides "},{"id":"c8cb496604fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Causes of Mutations","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/genetics\/mutations\/causes-of-mutations","description":"","text":"change letter sequence occurs called mutation there chemical physical causes naturally occurring chemicals cause mutations radiation various kinds whatever changes nucleotide dramatically impact coding protein during replication transcription polymerase enzymes charged placing proper nucleotides strands sometimes these mistakes spontaneous happen though considered 100 000 average wrong mistake given amount bases replicated every errors bound eventually generally damaging result permanent makes problems particular discarded manufactured ionizing damage repair mechanisms exposed easily death later discuss harmful microbes different carcinogens worst offenders leading cancer specific point error however since three codon gained messed whole frameshift serious table below summarizes types discussed detail "},{"id":"c8de074a04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Ames Test","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/genetics\/mutations\/ames-test","description":"","text":"simple performed mutagenic property chemical using bacteria organism detects mutate lethal bleach doesnt trick change phenotype looks ability produce something normally unless mutated strain salmonella cannot histidine required nutrient strains called negative production point mutation other words busted these exposed mutagen randomly things broken normal state course sometimes happen spontaneously always occurs image experiment plates plate includes being tested mutagenicity control contains contain small amount allows organisms begin dividing really effect eventually those survive right where produced their colonies visible couple random mutants because found cause carcinogenic tumor since chemicals inside possible conclude tumors certainly there 90 correlation between mutagens carcinogens positive helps determine worth doing further animal testing "},{"id":"ca3d56d604fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Point Mutations","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/genetics\/mutations\/point-mutations","description":"","text":"genetic redundant meaning codon codes given amino changes sequence letters looks cause problem common mutation involves switching single letter another sometimes polymerases mistakes matching wrong pairing pattern while should inserted instead called point ranging effects shown below depending which three altered different happen since changing specific still calls insertion change protein neutral there however missense serious nonsense changed where happens along chain premature terminate before completed highly unlikely function properly "},{"id":"ca4d225a04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Base Analogs","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/genetics\/mutations\/base-analogs","description":"","text":"cause point mutations comes chemicals called analogs these nucleotides inserted during replication unfortunately polymerase attempts later round confuse which normally matching letter correctly starts mistakes insert bases since decide analog supposed treat possible pathogen hopefully incorporated healthy cells kills toxic effects better drugs available "},{"id":"ca59869e04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Frameshift Mutations","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/genetics\/mutations\/frameshift-mutations","description":"","text":"while point mutations involve changing letter sequence another letters codon change other codons remain intact frameshift mutation serious since groups 3 single nucleotide would downstream grouped shift reading frame amino acids chain dramatically altered happen inserted there number causes common happens cells exposed sections cause these nucleotides rather opposite strand thymine dimer formation bumps normally enzymes break dimers restore shape however become overworked polymerase comes along round replication combination makes difficult place confused instead results gives aflatoxin known carcinogen commonly found peanut butter course consume pounds before becomes problematic youre eating youve bigger problems remarkably toxic liver dangerous chemicals reason requires testing chemical "},{"id":"c54b061e04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Introduction to Microbes","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/introduction-to-microbes","description":"","text":"completing lesson should define microbe groups living single celled organisms describe impact microbes global ecology impacts humans founders microbiology influenced civilizations explain importance disease people antiquity religions viewed ancient views science evolved early scientists their contributions debate around spontaneous generation settled louis pasteur 39 significance golden recent contributors"},{"id":"c571b56604fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Early Scientists","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/introduction-to-microbes\/early-scientists","description":"Nicolaus Copernicus\u00a0By the time of Copernicus, the study of astronomy had been going on for thousands of years. At the time he lived, an understanding of mathematics had developed to the point w","text":"nicolaus copernicus study astronomy going thousands years lived understanding mathematics developed point where astronomers could predict motions stars planets there great interest learning about invention called telescope allowed careful observation interested movement ptolemaic model placed earth center universe while including revolved around satisfied explanation light sometimes strange things backwards predicted direction after revolving instead copernicuss extremely revolutionary contradicted everyone humans creation needless became controversial figure though publishing biggest contribution centers willingness change people think knows thinking world large changing caused concern because began thought themselves their relation galileo galilei often referred founder modern experimental science physics famous contributions field first crude telescopes better which success noted surface smooth described rings saturn among tools really excited studying fascinated millennia planting seasons religious holidays predicting future antonie leeuwenhoek budding scientific community technology lenses distant objects making appear bigger matter someone wanted items close small enter dutch linen merchant microscopes magnifying everyday looking water discovered teemed animalcules animal molecules suspected invisible microscopic existed quite popular parties demonstrating collection circus animals discovery brought important question these "},{"id":"c58069a804fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Spontaneous Generation: Microbes","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/introduction-to-microbes\/spontaneous-generation-microbes","description":"With the discovery of microbes, the fight was on once more, this time regarding the origins of these tiny \"animalcules\" noted by Leuwenhoek and others. Perhaps spontaneous generation did not work on l","text":"discovery microbes fight regarding origins these animalcules noted leuwenhoek others perhaps spontaneous generation large animals insects surely microbe arise fashion conduct experiments meant settle argument needham conducted experiment claimed proved heated chicken broth poured variety containers sealed instance spoiled explosive growth proof chickn organisms would generate spontaneously lazarro spallazani contaminated somewhere along boiled container without letting while nothing after period critics argued before question deadlocked clear answer enters giants field microbiology louis pasteur considered godfather modern become famous causes fermentation theory disease vaccines stage interested settling issue 1861 still being debated americal civil settled matter tenacious experimenter devised clever method killing contained allowing glass flask exiting class shape allowed through could contaminate necked flasks shelves laboratory years showing bacterial finally there wrong comes existing early himself contributions medicine beginning "},{"id":"c58ac20e04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"History of Microbiology","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/introduction-to-microbes\/history-of-microbiology","description":"","text":"history microbiolgy 39 beginnings prehistory humans continues through civilization greek roman empires europe includes scientific thought modern advances today encompasses ancient tales causes disease story those superstitions given explanations theory cases ideas still persist people contributed throughout giants pasteur lister founded microbiology surgical techniques contributions watson crick launched biotechnology alexander fleming ushered antibiotics saving millions lives process these scientists others mentioned quite literally changed world since great grandparents young "},{"id":"c58f106604fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Pasteur and Wine production","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/introduction-to-microbes\/pasteur-and-wine-production","description":"","text":"1854 pasteur appointed professor chemistry faculty sciences lille france industrial number distilleries factories minister public instruction completely science 39 reminded university whilst keeping scientific theory should order produce useful reaching results appropriate yourselves special applications suitable wants surrounding country contrast other needed prodding enjoyed taking students tours quick advise managers available solve their problems summer 1856 bigot father called overcome difficulties having manufacturing alcohol fermentation beetroot often instead fermentations yielded lactic better appreciate discoveries follow understand believed about alcoholic emerging freed pseudoscience alchemist trying mysterious chemical processes living animals slowly being unraveled strictly terms leading production vinegar straightforward breakdown sugar desired molecules experts proclaimed during presence inherent unstabilizing vibrations magic could transfer these finished grape pressings start yeast cells found fermenting simply product cause apparently there spontaneous generation proponents still hanging around biologists thought agent causing ridiculed chemists clever enough figured worked microscopic organism credit unfortunately establishment providing brewers manufacturers plagued serious economic related yields might suddenly unexpectedly formed appear place quality taste change making control nightmare producers would forced throw resultant batches sadly factory microscope quickly three clues allowed puzzle first produced normally plump budding rather small microbes always mixed something present things second analysis showed alcohols complex organic compounds explained simple catalytic going third critical rotated light unique physical trait suspected concluded prove responsible forming contaminating microorganisms turned several years identified isolated specific normal abnormal heated moderately temperatures minutes thereby sterilize pasteurize prevent degradation cultures yeasts added sterile mashes uniform predictable "},{"id":"c59a1a7404fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Types of Microorganisms","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/introduction-to-microbes\/types-of-microorganisms","description":"Microorganisms\u00a0or\u00a0Microbes\u00a0are tiny living organisms that generally cannot be seen with the naked eye. These can be single celled organisms like bacteria, or they may be multicellular, like f","text":"microorganisms microbes living organisms generally cannot naked these single celled bacteria multicellular fungi rather simple cells prokaryotes complex eukaryotes viruses arent complete merely protein shell encapsulating genetic information commonly studied include algae protozoa "},{"id":"c5aa8a5804fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Microbes and the Planet","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/introduction-to-microbes\/microbes-and-the-planet","description":"The history of the earth is really the history of microbes. While the earth is approximately 4.5 Billion years old, single celled organisms have been around for 3.5 Billion years. In contrast, multice","text":"history earth really microbes while approximately 4 5 billion years single celled organisms around 3 contrast multicellular organims large animals dinosarus later mammals maybe humans couple hundred thousand longer impact environment significantly altered course first extinctions happened starting using photosynthesis capture energy oxygen major byproduct living anaerobic lived without since there little present early earths atmosphere photosynthetic amounts released killing majority cells exists today descendants those interesting consequence having atomosphere formation ozone which forms protective layer protect things harsh exposure light plants surface because protected activities would different about every possible corner environments cannot conditions several flourish times thermal vents springs sides volcanos bacteria considered ubiquitous everywhere "},{"id":"c6fea5d804fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Early Civilization","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/introduction-to-microbes\/early-civilization","description":"Looking back in the past to the time before people were able to record history, it's instructive to think about how early humans must have lived. These were tribal based groups living in small communi","text":"looking before people record history instructive think about early humans lived these tribal based groups living small communities without interaction anyone except tribe across river populations variety factors including accidental deaths dangerous wildlife lifespans short death endemic infections general during birth particular infant mortality rates individuals survived adulthood eventually banded together larger invention agriculture civilizations today domesticating animals plants supplies increased leading higher standard preservation technology converting grains alcohol storage increases population though cities dependant outside sources trade other towns started travel place search things could consequences having those places increase spread disease epidemic village really leaves would outbreak diseases start traders deliver where becomes quickly around through inevitably become resistance illnesses after human beings developed pattern civilization tends reoccur perhaps heard horsemen apocalypse begins group something another local farmers driven their killed outright leads stage famine there everyone starvation weaken making susceptible pestilence widespread final large segments directly battlefield somewhere "},{"id":"c711b45204fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Disease & the Ancient World","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/introduction-to-microbes\/disease-the-ancient-world","description":"Concepts of life and death have always fascinated humans. Diseases are a major part of human mortality and people have been interested in curing diseases for thousands of years. History is full of exa","text":"concepts death always fascinated humans diseases major human mortality people interested curing thousands years history examples importance disease ancient civilizations sometimes impacts devastating indeed changed course there chinese babylonian medical texts dating 3000 biblical exodus describes plagues egypt leading departure moses israelites sometime around 1400 athens sparta fought peloponnesian 430 devestating plague killed citizens holed hoping spartan seige historians credit causing power influence shifted macedonia alexander great which eventually roman civilization romans powerful empire world their success military strength significant engineering prowess truly successful ability build cities unlike other better followed perfected control crowded building healthy population water supply sewage system sophisticated bringing fresh removing unheard until probably hundred imagine being healthier 2000 either london brought aqueducts public baths clean street sanitation common removed spectatularly engineered sewers extremely relatively especially considering about treat infectious merely prevented spread incursions various warlike tribes itself managed repeated destroyed aqueduct citys collapse since roads epidemics malaria local actual warfare horsemen apocalypse struck again planning europe where things reverted pattern health before remained place locations 1800s early 1900s advent understanding modern sewer treatment sytems suffer "},{"id":"c727f99204fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Disease & Religion","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/introduction-to-microbes\/disease-religion","description":"The intersection of religion and an understanding of disease has an interesting and lingering effect on how we think about diseases even today. People in ancient times had no good understanding of th","text":"intersection religion understanding disease interesting lingering effect think about diseases today people ancient times causes infectious since microbes cannot naked functional microscope exist until nearly 1700 surprise completely explain infection possible explanation divine greeks ideas natural rules medicine crude technology hippocrates hippocratic aristotle groundwork making attempts scientifically recognized something nature didnt prayed deities specialized solving different problems world romans followed practice sorts human ailments depending condition offering proper goddess would either favor wrong during ceremony early christians heirs bible contains stories healing history illness effectively powerful story jesus became miraculous process christianity developed theme carried centuries saints powers various illnesses sense hearkens roman practices middle concept priest doctor fused entity being wrath judgement sometimes viewed punishment still speak epidemic 1980s common preachers homosexual lifestyle affects heterosexuals cause morphed promiscuous denominations customs regarding handling importance religious observance aspects jewish kosher basically focus prevent contamination islamic similarities these established before evidence known tended "},{"id":"c7381ee404fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Microbes and Humans","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/introduction-to-microbes\/microbes-and-humans","description":"","text":"people think about bacteria viruses there almost unconscious feeling these harmful humans indeed reasons study microbes relate medicine effective causing pathogens disease microorganisms course relates dangerous 2000 organisms cause 10 billion infections worldwide resulting untold numbers deaths today recognize medical conditions associated unnoticed microbial infection chronic 39 associate ulcers heart cancer grips either fault least diseases prevent becoming problem first place however variety important which advanced civilization produce whole foods especially times before could preserve refridgeration modern packaging using cheese yogurt example preserving would otherwise quickly spoil argued production build cities alcohol foundation entire industrial scale medicines antibiotics biotechnology industry products chemicals science allows manipulate living genetic level engineering recombinant technology explore future lessons "},{"id":"c741360004fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Rise of Scientific Thought","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/introduction-to-microbes\/rise-of-scientific-thought","description":"As we have seen, the ancient Egyptians, Greeks and later Romans all made contributions to science in their day, but many of their beliefs were still rooted in the supernatural world. All of those cult","text":"ancient egyptians greeks later romans contributions science their beliefs still rooted supernatural world those cultures religious tradition praying supposed specific human concern there healing fertility harvest success naturally understandings natural attributed actions example traversed apollos chariot modern scientific views first developed during renaissance period european history became possible begin build sophisticated tools allowed study objects poorly understood technology advanced enough create devices telescopes microscopes things either small without being object clearly wonder relied explanations events certain level philosophies about light people asking questions nature rather merely accepting existed result string visionaries along contributed something development important understand these before discuss microbiology necessary discipline evolved known earliest advocates using experimental method roger bacon franciscan friar taught aristotle oxford college england interested budding disciplines physics alchemy wrote optics predicted future spectacles advocating topics colleges which almost entirely devoted philosophy theology because friends ideas taken seriously though nothing "},{"id":"c74b28e004fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Spontaneous Generation","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/introduction-to-microbes\/spontaneous-generation","description":"The discovery of the new technology of microscopes came at a time of great controversy in the scientific community. A debate had been raging over the origins of living organisms. Now that science had ","text":"discovery technology microscopes great controversy scientific community debate raging origins living organisms science firmly established nature behaves according rules observed experimented figure about everything working astronomical questions puzzled people centuries others principles physics mathematics while concerned biological fundamental question where things everyone pretty babies could watch animals mating similar fashion birds reptiles small insects their young example table within maggots would spontaneously appear bucket swamp eventually frogs lizards appeared spring being primordial sludge putrescence theory spontaneous generation states certain forms arises material number prominent scientists using methods experimentation settle issue francisco disprove conducted experiment without other sealed naturally problem solved critics complained however nothing results wrong tried another added covered cloth again which allowed flies hatch contained forced concede defeat admit leeuwenhoek invisible animalcules surely those arise argument "},{"id":"c75a601c04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Germ Theory of Disease","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/introduction-to-microbes\/germ-theory-of-disease","description":"\u00a0The crowning achievement of Pasteur's career was his contribution to the development of germ theory of disease and the use of vaccines to prevent these diseases. Pasteur's studies on contamination ","text":" crowning achievement pasteurs career contribution development theory disease vaccines prevent these diseases studies contamination airborne yeast clearly stimulated certain investigators recognize entry foreign microorganisms pasteur about ignaz semmelweis writings suggesting doctors their hands before surgery became advocate practice france ignored english medical doctor joseph lister impressed began systematically sterilize instruments bandages sprayed phenol solutions operatories reducing infections following incredibly numbers 1875 physicians recognized accompanied specific opinion unwilling concede important cholera diphtheria scarlet fever childbirth syphilis smallpox could caused agents magnitude problem according biographer between april 1 10 1856 paris maternity hospital there 64 fatalities 347 confinements closed patients transferred different sadly contagion followed women nearly wandered through wards increasingly aware infection spread attendants healthy physician colleagues avoidance microbes meant famous speech august academy medicine stated water sponge which cover wound deposit germs power multiplying rapidly within tissue honor being surgeon would perfectly clean greatest slowly surely preachings semmelweiss other antiseptic robert contemporary rules conclusively prove bacterium cause infectious kochs postulates still today identified 1980s developed whole technologies ushered known golden microbiology found microbial agent microbiologists growing bacteria slices sterilized potatos unfortunately starch quite gooey things tried using gelatin jello needed optimal temperatures technicians walter hesse named fannie baker suggested material seaweed cannot digest ideal surface specimens another technician petri overlapping glass dishes incubation fortunately placed incubators 37 degrees celcius temperature pathogens great forward culinary knowledge"},{"id":"c847ca1e04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Modern Technologies","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/introduction-to-microbes\/modern-technologies","description":"Since the time of Pasteur we have made great advances in our understanding of microbes. Once those early pioneers were able to identify the causes of infectious disease, others have turned to finding","text":"since pasteur great advances understanding microbes those early pioneers identify causes infectious disease others turned finding control edward jenner later himself worked vaccine method inducing immunity within person prevent onset given infection known managed survive smallpox would longer susceptible catching making based harmful organism cowpox protection without subjecting patient itself similar rabies looked chemical compounds could injected causing damage tissues ehrlich searching magic bullet destroy bacteria developed salvarsan treat syphillis alexander fleming accidental discoveries science across substance produced common inhibited growth discovery eventual production penicillin saved untold numbers lives battlefields world recent decades begun understand genetic molecular level watson crick became possible study cells controlled genes processes manipulated 1970s discovered restriction enzymes scissors allowed cutting physically reorganizing resulting patterns decade 80s technique laboratory recently plays critical regulated invent therapies variety change microbiologists golden studied cultures thinking about however discrete nature exist complex communities every conceivable surface biofilms better understandings contribute diseses cannot easily standard methods "},{"id":"c552d8ee04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Growth and Metabolism","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/growth-and-metabolism","description":"","text":"contains parts bacterial growth nutrition metabolism click topic pages content under "},{"id":"c6f78e6a04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Bacterial Growth and Nutrition","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/growth-and-metabolism\/bacterial-growth-and-nutrition","description":"","text":" completing lesson should describe bacteria acquire energy sources carbon different groups under based temperature growth characteristics oxygen availability other factors influence bacterial explain reproduce detail pattern reproduction follows effects exponential generation happens stage curve features count"},{"id":"c86c498e04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Bacterial Growth Patterns","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/growth-and-metabolism\/bacterial-growth-and-nutrition\/bacterial-growth-patterns","description":"Bacteria reproduce through the process of binary fission. One cell duplicates it's DNA and simply splits into two cells. The new cell is identical to the original cell.When a cell is placed on a sol","text":"bacteria reproduce through process binary fission duplicates simply splits cells identical original placed solid growth surface petri begin divide resulting become 4 which 8 eventually called colony clones follow mathematical pattern exponential becomes 2 16 constant doubling population produces particular graph curved shows after certain point numbers start increase dramatically power einstein asked powerful force universe answered without hesitation compounding interest principle similar worthy further explanation characteristic enormous implications human health "},{"id":"c87bd39004fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Bacterial Growth Curve","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/growth-and-metabolism\/bacterial-growth-and-nutrition\/bacterial-growth-curve","description":"Different bacteria reproduce at different rates. The time it takes the population to double is called the generation time. Generation time varies, it could be every 10 minutes it could be twice a day","text":"different bacteria reproduce rates takes population double called generation varies could every 10 minutes twice quickly others slowly becomes relevant considering human disease fever infection extend slowing growth point where immune system mobilize destroy invading microbes placed favorable environment follow characteristic pattern increasing number followed decrease plotted cells present period resulting curve shown below phase significant increase adjusting their preparing division exponential represents continuously doubling continue until conditions become calculated growers steep slope first stationary impression there nothing happening portion shows never produced stabilizes equal dying occurring replaced numbers since closed single nutrients remove waste products begin build eventually leads unfavorable living decline death sometimes rapidly dividing brewers yeast culture example efficient already active growing company avoid waiting cultures maintained indefinitely using vessel chemostat unlike discussed media constantly added giving containing wastes removed allows maintenance ideal supports anyone needing removes brewing fermentation "},{"id":"c88b4e8804fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Counting Bacteria","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/growth-and-metabolism\/bacterial-growth-and-nutrition\/counting-bacteria","description":"Counting BacteriaIn order to talk about populations of bacteria, it's necessary to count them. There are a number of ways to count microorganisms. One of the most direct, (and tedious) ways to co","text":"counting bacteria order about populations necessary count there number microorganisms direct tedious under microscope blood cells patients anemia similar process which alive though possible culture powder weight approximation another method thats often taking measurement turbidity broth medium divide rapidly discussed cloudy solution becomes machines called spectrophotometers commonly chemistry measure cloudiness other cleverly counters narrow stream fluid through laser essentially passing single breaks counted problem these methods allow easily living theres useful perform plate place colonies remember colony represents multiplied every milliliter media contain billions trillions wants billion could dilute original sample million times containing placed youre dealing hundred after needed calculate undiluted "},{"id":"c8b9359604fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Reproduction Rates","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/growth-and-metabolism\/bacterial-growth-and-nutrition\/reproduction-rates","description":"The power of exponential growthThere is an old Chinese proverb that explains the power of exponential growth. There was once a rich and powerful man who was riding a large horse near the lake shore.","text":"power exponential growth there chinese proverb explains powerful riding large horse shore reason animal became frightened managed spill small cliff water fisherman nearby since wealthy could rowed pulled before drowned recovering unpleasant complained peasant about rescue nearly however completely ungrateful decided reward being wanting teach lesson struck bargain resist merely asked given weekly salary comfortable penny catch wanted raise again double every relieved amazed little quickly agreed story would amuse friends sucker chose pittance puzzlement furious quicky realized disaster befallen family complete utter ruined paupers exclaimed puzzled confused crazy upset answer following approximate payroll schedule clever notice takes 4 months hundred dollars wages after 100 grand another month million bucks millions finally within 9 entitled billion talking money consider situation twice instead think still doing maybe heres table figures smoke thats normous difference makes couple rather correct implications considering generation simple doubling 10 minutes 20 significant impact number bacteria produced easier immune system fight infections white blood cells together start fighting literally between death "},{"id":"ca7babca04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Energy and Carbon Sources","created":1558467861000,"location":"lessons\/growth-and-metabolism\/bacterial-growth-and-nutrition\/energy-and-carbon-sources","description":"","text":"living cells minimal requirements absolutely these essential elements include carbon hydrogen nitrogen oxygen phosphorous sulfur require energy source build necessary components structures sources either breakdown organic material heterotroph other matter autotroph takes co2 keeps releases acquired phototroph gathers light using chlorophyll chemotroph through molecules sugar terms mixed together 4 describe characteristics organisms example plant would photoautotroph chemoheterotroph microorganisms found examples every group "},{"id":"ca87ad8a04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Temperature and Growth","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/growth-and-metabolism\/bacterial-growth-and-nutrition\/temperature-and-growth","description":"Temperature has a dramatic effect on the growth of living organisms. At lower temperatures metabolism slows down, eventually becoming too low to sustain life. At higher temperatures, metabolism will i","text":"temperature dramatic effect growth living organisms lower temperatures metabolism slows eventually becoming sustain higher increase first enzymes required basic cellular chemistry unfold denature destroyed minimal stand maximum prefer exist particular however humans preferred 37 98 6 tolerate colder before person freezes death cause trouble faster someone 101 105 hospital 107 youre intensive nearly cooling heating altogether placed 3 large groups based these strict cutoffs though there overlap degrees celsius psychrophiles between 0 15 mesophiles 50 thermophiles 80 extreme thrive boiling psychrotrophs interesting group include staph listeria important because refrigerator poisoning fridge indefinitely sorry "},{"id":"ca95085404fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Oxygen and growth","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/growth-and-metabolism\/bacterial-growth-and-nutrition\/oxygen-and-growth","description":"","text":"oxygen important factor determining growth organisms humans cannot survive without other particularly bacteria different requirements while actually exposed using gives bonuses comes getting energy through metabolism however dangerous harmful cells radicals peroxides among byproducts based outright immune system these products destroy invading pathogens reason organism plans efficiently enzymes catalase enzyme breaks highly reactive superoxide dismutase destroys because require environments aerobes obligate aerobe requires would category microaerophiles small amounts anaerobe tolerate needed dangers anaerobes aerotolerant thrive facultative neither harmed either living intestinal tract click enlarge "},{"id":"ca9eda3c04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Other Growth Parameters","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/growth-and-metabolism\/bacterial-growth-and-nutrition\/other-growth-parameters","description":"","text":"another factor restricts growth microorganisms human cells require blood about 7 2 sustain bacteria tolerate ranges neutral lower acidic level bacterial quite happily inside fairly stomach osmotic pressure effects structure enables resist forces hypotonic environment hypertonic organisms staphylococcus handle higher called tolerant other actually adapted living concentrations halophiles atmospheric affects since found virtually every planet should surprising extreme pressures ocean floor where barophiles manipulate prevent their especially preservation canned first heated destroy sealed containers without oxygen foods naturally prevents spoilage orange juice yogurt examples prior refrigeration common practice storage course keeping slows 39 forever either "},{"id":"c70ac31804fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Metabolism","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/growth-and-metabolism\/metabolism","description":"","text":"completing lesson should explain differences between anabolism catabolism describe major pathways cells detail oxygen plays choosing different energy producing compare contrast respiration versus fermentation products process glycolysis events krebs cycle electron transport chain macromolecule synthesis interconnected"},{"id":"c89e34e404fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Metabolism Overview","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/growth-and-metabolism\/metabolism\/metabolism-overview","description":"The chemistry of living cells can be broken down into two tasks. First, cells need to acquire energy to carry out basic life processes. If a cell isn't doing photosynthesis (which we won't cover) it n","text":"chemistry living cells broken tasks first acquire energy carry basic processes doing photosynthesis which cover needs organic source commonly carbohydrates process breaking smaller molecules called catabolism during produced intermediate metabolites available other major function cellular construct building blocks needed purposes division bacteria constantly looking divide sorts parts accomplish creating biosynthesis structures anabolism focus mostly portion production "},{"id":"c8ae096e04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Energy Pathways","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/growth-and-metabolism\/metabolism\/energy-pathways","description":"","text":"although prokaryotic cells eukaryotic similar process producing there differences noted along three different biochemical pathways generate these under conditions biggest issues consider outset availability oxygen using efficient trying without glycolysis where single moecule glucose broken molecules pyruvate happen produces stage present aerobic respiration continue large number choice undergo anaerobic fermentation produced entire waste products "},{"id":"c8c8d9a604fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Respiration vs Fermentation","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/growth-and-metabolism\/metabolism\/respiration-vs-fermentation","description":"","text":"after completion glycolysis little metabolites called pyruvate image shows options point presence oxygen undergo aerobic respiration without supply anaerobic environment fermentation availability becomes leading different outcomes energy captured along youll matter 18x human terms metabolism would consume amount every maintain normally imagine eating commercial where person 20 bowls cereal nutrition value total wouldnt pound weight clearly mitochondria further processing 36 happens eukaryotic cells prokaryotic contain nonetheless product though mechanism manufacturing location overall process summarized below sugar combined produce carbon dioxide water necessary there available cannot co2 o2 however stockpiling forms during something comes muscle eventually exercise surplus lactic causing fatigue bacterial problem their solutions diverse species acids other byproducts including gasses alcohol following depict various products produced "},{"id":"c8dc001204fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Glycolysis","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/growth-and-metabolism\/metabolism\/glycolysis","description":"","text":"first converting sugar starts glycolysis multi series enzyme conversions 6 carbon glucose molecule 3 pyruvate molecules click enlarge addition pyruate process produces 2 these later either ferment oxygen present saved aerobic respiration converted discussion assume pyruvates cycle "},{"id":"c8e25f8e04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Anabolism","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/growth-and-metabolism\/metabolism\/anabolism","description":"","text":"looked catabolic pathways where energy produced worth quick cells manufacture cellular components illustration shows anything needs bacteria particularly adept converting other there convert amino acids anabolic interconnected glycolysis krebs cycle produce number intermediates taken fatty reconstruct carbohydrates glucose converted about specific biochemical carry becomes complex summarizes semesters senior level biochemisty little picture poster literally covers office showing magnifiying glass thats enzymes represented notice possible things break these largely reversible which means protein theyll pyruvic entirely extremely resilient something nearly thing another while almost everything metabolic simply cases cannot consume concept essential vitamins comes folic example certain become deficient severe complications common happen people suffer problem pretty their hands "},{"id":"ca211d5404fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Krebs Cycle","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/growth-and-metabolism\/metabolism\/krebs-cycle","description":"","text":"process aerobic respiration actually first 3 carbon pyruvates processed completely broken krebs cycle pyruvate combined oxygen co2 during other energy compounds released these convert using electron transport chain begins converting 2 molecule acetyl newly feeds circular click enlarge 4 intermediate oxaloacetate 6 citrate involves series metabolic reactions those carbons combine original reformed ready through again thing remember there molecules produced previous glycolysis means twice aside processing products around produces similar think being equal difference between dollars canadian pretty worth addition 1 glucose turns final tally little proccess things "},{"id":"ca32d85004fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Electron Transport Chain","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/growth-and-metabolism\/metabolism\/electron-transport-chain","description":"","text":"final process involves dealing produced glycolysis krebs cycle complicated takes place mitochondria eukaryotic cells bacteria happens membrane these compounds remember chemistry chapter simplest contains proton electron separated youre moving across making concentration gradient powers system create image below shows setup transport chain located proteins called cytochromes which along passed energy provided number other click enlarge window still description being concentrated between peptidoglycan looking positive facilitated diffusion channel enzyme complex synthase allow reenter passes through generates conentrate outside depends transferred turns 3 electrons 2 therfore makes "},{"id":"c556df4804fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Biotechnology","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/biotechnology","description":"","text":"3 parts through three sections notes biotechnology tools genetic engineering genetically modified organisms "},{"id":"c56af1c204fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Genetically Modified Organisms","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/biotechnology\/genetically-modified-organisms","description":"","text":"known people uneasy about scientists changing genome living organisms matter benefit society derive genetically altered plants animals 39 trust science behind personal theory natural tendency mistrust which understand sometimes through sheer ignorance impossible rationally weigh benefits versus risks course hollywood loves produce things geneticists money hungry loonies jurassic learning objectives completion lesson students describe examples early features toxin including problems define frankenfoods explain their significance analyze actual threat poses doping works"},{"id":"c872ba4e04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Why the Interest?","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/biotechnology\/genetically-modified-organisms\/why-the-interest","description":"","text":"answer agriculture world population steadily increasing shows signs slowing additional 80 million people 39 estimated could double several decades fastest growing regions earth among least provide situation worse other production fairly stable 30 years green revolution 60 increase varieties irrigation chemical fertilizers allowed quite impressive increases means stays harder without putting agricultural needed housing transportation types human development simply useful crops fewer plant necessary "},{"id":"c882330204fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Making a GMO","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/biotechnology\/genetically-modified-organisms\/making-a-gmo","description":"","text":"early examples genetic transfer plants centered insertion firefly luciferase allows organism easily observable trait inserted tobacco resulting transgenic plant light itself allowing scientists success other engineered contain genes organisms altogether order create traits target would possible traditional selective breeding methods goals technology increase yield crops grown using space produced conditions where theyd normally drought frost resistant developed particular countries climate makes enough survive soybean herbicides insecticide toxin control destuction insects european borer insect thats destructive produce their without farmer spray field image shows happens attacked "},{"id":"c89585d804fa11e388620050569d0","title":"How Bt Works","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/biotechnology\/genetically-modified-organisms\/how-bt-works","description":"","text":"toxin produced bacterium bacillus thuringensis attacks destroys insects particularly caterpillars ingest effectively kills insecticide decades never shown cause problems animals studies looking possible allergic reactions humans concern action 1 2 binds receptors insect eating 3 breaks lining other tissues 4 "},{"id":"c8a7610404fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Problems with Bt","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/biotechnology\/genetically-modified-organisms\/problems-with-bt","description":"","text":"everything there issues example approved consumption humans particular variety starlink produced aventis sciences contains protein known cry9c easily digested could possibly allergen tested however animal widely grown purpose 2003 number shells being grocery stores positive somehow found factory consumers caused great controversy longer another possible issue plants effect other insects species causing problem insecticide after produce pesticide pollen concerns interact confer unintended plant concern transfer milkweed monarch butterly feeds would inadvertently butterfly population since everyone loves think bambi wants using research suggests field impact populations negligible still argument often forth opponents genetically modified crops "},{"id":"c8c291b804fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Frankenfoods","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/biotechnology\/genetically-modified-organisms\/frankenfoods","description":"Frankenfoods . . . coming to a store near you!Do a search on the web using the term Frankenfoods. How many hits do you get? Genetically modified foods were among the first organisms to be modified ","text":"frankenfoods coming store search using genetically modified foods among first organisms profit since everyone needs every there interest famine hunger present condition places around world civil unrest sorts countries traced basic necessity finding family agriculture still practiced unchanged thousands years corners planet obviously would productive people their rather grain miles country surplus place where starving equally several billion exists captive consumer anyone willing motive number daily basis biotech companies worked produce crops easier harsh environments contain nutrient value helps farmers process however strong movement certain resists these derisively called frankenfood images mindless destructive killing organism destroy humans think tomato growing youll understanding intensity controversy actually truth acclimated waters inserted plant resulting resist frost potentially grown northern climates winter great behind those opposed genetic modification mostly based misunderstanding worse intentionally misleading science sites spread about partially accurate information designed scare opposing course others imagery point things happen progress halted through unjustified criticism risks associated public faces prescribed doctors office involve changes environment released populations plants careful study evaluation weigh benefits producing carefully imagined possible "},{"id":"c8d73c9e04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"In the Beginning: Early GMO's","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/biotechnology\/genetically-modified-organisms\/in-the-beginning-early-gmos","description":"The Flavr SavrThe first genetically modified food was the tomato. The FDA approved the Flavr Savr tomato in 1994 but the company that produced it was not able to make it work financially. The idea w","text":"flavr first genetically modified tomato approved 1994 company produced financially create ripened would longer shelf another tried place arctic flounder effort plant resistant frost again commercial success though opposition groups demonize technology recent years developed normally plants soils contain product allow farmers estimated 25 million acres farmland thats becomes salty golden child created peter beyer potrykus published their results journal science 2000 carotene production transferred daffodil precursor vitamin deficiency affects number women children around world estimates 140 250 under 5 affected since people worldwide other foodstuff enrich common nutrient bottles fintstones vitamins reduced those basic nutrition recently variety 2 introduced 20x original opponents argued nothing temporary underlying problem hunger poverty malnutrition equally engineered argue introduction naturally decreased varieties decrease biodiversity these concerns negate practical value enhanced "},{"id":"ca1c6e9404fa11e388620050569d0","title":"The Trouble with GMO's","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/biotechnology\/genetically-modified-organisms\/the-trouble-with-gmos","description":"","text":"manipulation genes living organisms really think about humans manipulating since history actually process selective breeding involves allowing pairs desirable animals example breed offspring hopefully characterists parents combined breeds today these exist hundred years enjoy derived indian maize quite different europeans landed north america items grocery store varities created 39 public concern genetically modified legitimate number reasons there sensitivity safety plants particularly europe disease outbreak sensitive production industry however online simply misplaced necessarily harmful strain turnip resulted practices tremendous amounts research ensure areas biggest allergic reactions people mundane things fatally cases exchanged someone allergy problem foods normally considered another issue transfer plant species concerns could unintended consequences result biodiversity couple issues worthy discussion study natural differences between making organism instead using traditional certain provide success whole point sexual reproduction allow creation outcomes siblings everyone comes produces thousands phenotype combination large stumble right other genetic engineering precise rather mixing hundreds finding attempts transferred everything remains exactly trait conferred involved understood their function known overall likely unknown effects "},{"id":"ca2e549c04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Gene Doping","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/biotechnology\/genetically-modified-organisms\/gene-doping","description":"","text":"athletes today developed collection pharmecuticals other natural products enhance development muscle stronger muscles gives performance people early millions dollars basically front others competition severe remember lance armstrong therefore great motivation exists better faster tried things steroids boost however there health complications involved mention issue fairness those train really professional amateur sports strongly discourage banned using dangerous substances while concerned enhancing drugs international olympic committee harsh anyone found taken materials enforcement based testing fluids presence anything looks suspicious would athlete produce naturally ocurring hormones another person couldnt accused doing unnatural thats someone after right banning player playing basketball because alter genetic structure their needed nothing detect doping without roids refer abuse legitimate medical therapy treatments modify persons makeup traits repair growth ultimately controlled genes erythropoetin hormone controls production blood cells oxygen which means fatigue easily factor control division interest called myostatin particular breed defect allows large belgian result mutation occur humans sometimes child borne these super muscular babies abnormally since newborns cannot alone normal question becomes controlling altered adult answer eventually different genetics achieve schwarzenegger matter course terminology problem alteration conjures sorts images giant terminator running amuck given information should cosmetic reasons permitted built perfect laboratory "},{"id":"c5b04ee804fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Biotechnology Tools","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/biotechnology\/biotechnology-tools","description":"","text":"learning objectives completion lesson students describe evolution manipulation works sequenced function restriction enzymes define recombinant fingerprinting"},{"id":"c8d4f5e204fa11e388620050569d0","title":"History of Gene Manipulation","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/biotechnology\/biotechnology-tools\/history-of-gene-manipulation","description":"","text":"discussions about genetic manipulation living organisms often bring certain level discomfort necessarily understand process fully someone thing engineering therapy imagine something sinister movie society exposed fantastical visions creatures frankenstein mutant killer animals created there visceral reaction among people 39 unnatural accuse science trying sometimes common while accurate permeates thinking reality tends exotic after occurring centuries humans interested creating varieties plants thousands years almost domesticated their current today exist breeding program grains fruits vegetables every agriculture several millennia would developed without specialized genetically manipulated could argue modern civilization unless ancestors effective farming techniques including those selective programs exactly happening understood hundred everyone children looked parents desired traits produced offspring considered though methods crude results always expected scientists better understanding genetics thanks pioneers gregor mendel watson crick description itself excellent genes analyze manipulate tools technologies unimaginable 30 40 image shows developments explored "},{"id":"c8e8cdf604fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Polymerase Chain Reaction","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/biotechnology\/biotechnology-tools\/polymerase-chain-reaction","description":"","text":"technology increased speed which scientists analyze sequences polymerase chain reaction rsquo often found there small quantity available study fairly large amounts needed proper analysis cases where sample crime scene tissue cells follicle blood provide enough amplify allow loaded machine containing special necessary nucleotides thousands exact copies initial following shows works "},{"id":"ca2c485004fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Electrophoresis","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/biotechnology\/biotechnology-tools\/electrophoresis","description":"","text":"electrophoresis sequencing enough available analysis possible figure exact sequence letters found strand itself nucleotides specific hundred thousand rsquo entirely segment really looks human genome project 80 scientific community developed technology allow pieces undertook thought would consume years decades effort several billion turns decade technological advances robotics tedious faster today general 20 000 genes humans these unknown intensive research ongoing attempting sense generated practical applications include development variety genetic tests people predisposed certain diseases "},{"id":"ca415af604fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Restriction Enzymes","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/biotechnology\/biotechnology-tools\/restriction-enzymes","description":"Restriction Enzymes and Recombinant DNAOne of the first tools necessary for the manipulation of genes in living organisms involves a set of enzymes that cut DNA. Restriction enzymes, or restriction","text":"restriction enzymes recombinant first tools necessary manipulation genes living organisms involves endonucleases naturally found bacteria which recycling nucleotides unlike other specific given enzyme place where encounters letters different sites makes special scissors locations choose secondly staggered rather straight clean across strands particular leaves small single stranded exposed these sticky another piece matches sources mixed create combinations pieces overlapping allows multiple connect together larger combination called since samples recombined molecule becomes possible organism combine plant could inserted vitamin production normally acquire traits thing created "},{"id":"ca4f7b2c04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"DNA Fingerprinting","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/biotechnology\/biotechnology-tools\/dna-fingerprinting","description":"","text":"looked sequence humans would 99 identical however remaining portion different virtually unique individual while possible current technology figure complete person rsquo patterns compare people fingerprinting restriction enzymes collection sized pieces since slight variations their enzyme sites places individuals generate piles sizes those fragments separated according using electrophoresis expect banding pattern nearly ldquo fingerprint rdquo specific "},{"id":"c72f38b004fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Genetic Engineering","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/biotechnology\/genetic-engineering","description":"Biotechnology - Genetic EngineeringThis lesson focuses on using the tools of biotechnology to manipulate the genes of living organisms. Using recombinant DNA technology it is possible to create tran","text":"biotechnology genetic engineering lesson focuses using tools manipulate genes living organisms recombinant technology possible create transgenic treat diseases humans there three basic areas manipulation bacteria plants animals including learning objectives completion students describe transferred define vector vectors created therapy works"},{"id":"ca731d7004fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Engineering Bacteria","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/biotechnology\/genetic-engineering\/engineering-bacteria","description":"","text":"bacteria widely genetic engineering produce variety products useful society everything medically valuable proteins enzymes degrade toxic chemical spills produced altering genes being small simple genome relatively handle course multiply rapidly possible large quantities quickly another feature excellent deals unique structure called plasmid single circular chromosome round these plasmids naturally occurring contain necessary survival confer added phenotypes antibiotic resistance pathogenic traits ability spread other cells found multiple while others since perhaps thousand pairs easily mapped using electrophoresis sequencing technology scientists figured exact letter sequence letters becomes matter search sequences where certain restriction enzyme image shows specific sites ecor1 eco521 particular couple antibiotics ampicillin tetracycline insert places break resulting recombinant molecule inserted bacterial acquires depending basic process creating vector "},{"id":"ca81bae204fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Plasmid \/Vector","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/biotechnology\/genetic-engineering\/plasmid-vector","description":"","text":"recombinant plasmid vector creation involves several steps vehicle create deliver target since bacteria accustomed having plasmids inside these ideal transfer another source bacterial first acquiring appropriate widely ordered scientific supply company cutting using specific restriction enzyme mapped degree certainty about where additionally interested inserting example could trying insert insulin large numbers produce diabetics number pieces together allow samples because enzymes specifically every single piece matter exact sticky stick other sorts combinations reform their original circular shape reconnecting ligase helps inserted contain others interest becomes necessary among useful happens later simple process passing electrical current through cells opens breaks membrane allows those useless inserts hopefully least finding containing needed billions identical looking petri dishes phenotype changes genes would change survivability presence antibiotics remember shown antibiotic resistance sites middle right place there destroyed resistant plates figure which cause color given different sugars whatever mechanism discerned eventually again correct grown product commercial "},{"id":"ca8dc44004fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Plant Engineering","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/biotechnology\/genetic-engineering\/plant-engineering","description":"","text":"working plants obvious application genetic engineering producing sufficient growing world population continues ongoing struggle using transfer techniques possible create varieties challenge manner given resistance drought insects herbicides monsanto makes resistant roundup which weeds nutritious contain extra vitamins vitamin golden 39 increase amount produce plant microbe bacillus thuringiensis produces toxin kills spray fields destroying insert insect eating spraying required there research developing easier farmer particularly those countries where famine problem modern farming practices rather shipping grain nation facing better would provide seeds harsh conditions these goals process inserting desired genes involves bacterium ready again nature vector delivery system called agrobacterium tumefaciens plasmid naturally inserts organism causes tumors considered agriculture harnessed deliver target tissues build natural bacterial interest exact procedure outlined above matter cells mature following animation shows general "},{"id":"ca990c2e04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Human Engineering","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/biotechnology\/genetic-engineering\/human-engineering","description":"","text":"human engineering therapy permanent correction genetic condition considered grail modern medicine entire pharmaceutical industry built around development drugs alter physiology functioning properly treat symptoms truly disease manage blood pressure vanish involves insertion genes correct function mutated diabetes where something wrong insulin protein sugar metabolism cannot controlled intact functional could inserted cells would produce proper disappear permanently trick vector needed bacteria plasmid constructed eucaryotic another approach viruses attaching inserting their material manufacture viral removed virus infect target deliver following animation shows process treating cystic fibrosis while still experimental these procedures highly regarded having potential dramatically change treats cures diseases "},{"id":"c55bdbb004fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/prokaryotes-and-eukaryotes","description":"","text":"completing lesson should describe shapes arrangments bacteria characterize external structures significance biofilms composition bacterial explain differences between positive negative cells steps stain works internal function endospores their importance characteristics archea eukaryotes relative microbes magnification resolving power factors influence staining types specialized differentiate various microscopy "},{"id":"c5a6b18004fa11e388620050569d0","title":"External Structures","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/prokaryotes-and-eukaryotes\/external-structures","description":"","text":"bacteria number surface components differ function these locomotion often found liquid environments others attach surfaces while still protective nature different structures discussed below flagella filamentous appendages sticking called rotate propeller screw along ability motile located patterns around motility provided allow environment search nutrients direction period based conditions theyre swimming right longer sense going wrong reverse tumble random heading closer favorable movement fimbria smaller stick about anything other biofilms epithelial tissue glass plastic similar cells anchor grappling common connect bacterial together process conjugation share further genetics lesson glycolax layer forms harsh adhere consists matrix carbohydrates protein species recipes material general particularly defined slime organized uniform thickness capsule pathogenic protect immune system significant defense mechanism cannot overcome cases serious illness pathogens really nasty aside protection allows multi collectives leading creation biofilm where there complex interaction between organisms present health hazards implanted medical devices catheters heart valves "},{"id":"c5b25bac04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Cell Wall Structure","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/prokaryotes-and-eukaryotes\/cell-wall-structure","description":"","text":"bacteria unique structure helps protect their cellular membrane damage unfavorable conditions while cells carefully papmered right temperature level osmotic pressure bacterial everywhere outer needs little stronger resist hypotonic environment typically without strengthening would burst plants outside plasma however plant walls quite different surrounded layer peptidoglycan consists chains carbohydrate units called actual names harder remember these protein linking together forms chain fence surrounds entire major point attack trying control growth antibiotics penicillin holes protective leaving lysis enzyme lysozyme found tears saliva breaks structures species mycobacteria contain fatty acids mycolic actually easily identified staining techniques stain identify which cause tuberculosis leprosy handful mycoplasmas resistant extremely small shape diseases pneumonia diagnose treat "},{"id":"c6e17d2804fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Internal Structures","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/prokaryotes-and-eukaryotes\/internal-structures","description":"","text":"bacteria internal structures similar living cells somewhat different eukaryotes genetic material consists single circular chromosome rather multiple linear chromosomes found plant animal called plasmids these contain genes necessary quite handy antibiotic resisitance production unique enzymes other proteins characteristics contribute pathogenecity toxin instance shared between confer abilities transfer discussed genetics ribosomes manufacture pieces together complete structure large small subunits around messenger decode instructions locked building protein bacterial exact composition eukaryotic enough antibiotics disrupt function leave alone unharmed "},{"id":"c6ea77ca04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Resolution","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/prokaryotes-and-eukaryotes\/resolution","description":"","text":"making things bigger enough image clear magnified small computer larger becomes pixillated thing happen having lenses improve resolving power below shows looks resolution versus typically person would think microscope instrument designed magnify really about useful example hobby store 49 95 capable magnifying objects 1200 times includes light source student research microscopes 1000 starting around 1500 going thousands dollars academic community being taken gives whereas crystal sharp called ability details resolve property related numerical aperture which correlated higher better brighter produce defined distinguish between obviously differs greatly magnification enlarge object necessarily picture difference trying itself starts become problem bends passing through besides quality there another factor other method improving immersion special objectives reduces amount bending occurs travels material passes slide specimen refracted leaves glass enters again objective result using diffracted collected "},{"id":"c6ef241e04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Endospores","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/prokaryotes-and-eukaryotes\/endospores","description":"","text":"bacterial endospores formed cells themselves extreme conditions peril dying order survive harsh prepares endospore where packs everything needed until improve thriving called vegetative normal condition however bacteria bacillus clostridium ability spore before allow resume become again these commonly found which about evnironment there could support living decades waiting right reborn reproduce unlike spores produce single survival mechanism reproductive method process sporulation shown below medical importance significant probably imporant industry feature their toughness while typically pretty matter scary pathogen notoriously destroy resistant chemicals radiation something sterile certify organisms theyll present vegetable skins animal youre canning enter state inside sealed without oxygen anaerobic botulism comes deadly poisoning anthrax exist field infected decomposed grandpa impossible sterilize farmland prevention happen processing factory sufficient period boiling minutes people pressure cookers create steam increase temperatures 100 10 20 "},{"id":"c6f9dca604fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Microscope Basics","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/prokaryotes-and-eukaryotes\/microscope-basics","description":"","text":"bacteria really small exactly illustration shows objects naked insects microscope needed blood cells anything smaller requires special microcopes called electron microscopes rather beams light about scale micrometers nanometers realize meter yardstick millimeter thousand times apart possible thats fingers close together without actually touching difference between 1000 micrometer image above things microns basic magnify needs magnifier piece glass which makes everything appear larger there limit simple bigger 8 10 lenses added behind another compounded increase magnification 2000 classic compound magnifies steps first objective 4x 100x produces enlarged object magnified ocular eyepiece 10x final "},{"id":"c7010e9004fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Gram Stain","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/prokaryotes-and-eukaryotes\/gram-stain","description":"","text":"though structure cannot light microscope shown either positive negative simple differential staining technique stain because allows difference between options process takes advantage different thickness pepdioglycan layers cells thick layer effectively possible apart below click enlarge retains crystal violet purple while would clear after rinsing alcohol color comes adding saffranin under magnification quite information first bacterium result eliminates about possibilities shape remain finally special arrangment narrow field dozen impossible exact bacterial species eliminate possiblilities glance "},{"id":"c70d092004fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Staining Basics","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/prokaryotes-and-eukaryotes\/staining-basics","description":"","text":"simplest common microscopy compound microscope specimen prepared slide placed stage viewed under magnification unstained difficult using light certain types phase contrast regard easiest cells stain different staining methods differences between specific cellular structure process results death organism however always suitable method thats available simple these stains contain color bearing called chromophore react membrane bacterial either attracted repelled charges found bacteria slight negative charge their depending attract molecule basic positive since opposites chemistry anyways positively charged negatively acquires acidic differently therefore acquire doesnt nigrosin surrounding visible object background easily protocols colorize specimens information example stained procedure differentiate uptake capture quickly identified belonging groups adheres surface including crystal violet methylene malachite green "},{"id":"c713f37a04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Gram Positive\/Negative","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/prokaryotes-and-eukaryotes\/gram-positive-negative","description":"","text":"1880s christian working morgue interested cause death those around spent staining tissues disease remember golden microbiology causing organisms being studied experimented various trying combination allowed easily bacteria eventually worked method possible results discovery distinct structure possibilities these still referred negative positive turns different types cells structures involves thick layer peptidoglycan other addition second membrane contains lipopolysaccharide molecules endotoxin which released destroyed discusses later shown purple outside thinner reinforced discovered though stained technique scientists figure really looked "},{"id":"c722add404fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Types of Microscopy","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/prokaryotes-and-eukaryotes\/types-of-microscopy","description":"","text":"brightfield microscopy simplest common compound microscope specimen prepared slide placed stage viewed under magnification unstained cells offer contrast difficult because specimens typically stained application colorize provide background darkfield field method which creates between object surrounding implies bright creative redirection light passing through gives effect coming outside passes cannot directly deflected deviated produces great glare therefore often appears silhouette rather detail determined image shows phase microscopic allows viewing living using amplitude differences within objects biological observed normal quite material uncolored transparent overcome problem without staining otherwise treating microscopists trick change brightness images right looks becomes shifted bending slightly darker lighter relative result appear making easier advantage ability still fluorescence specialized fluoresce laser special microscopes capture computer screen stain specific parts confocal defined having focus remove above below point normally imaged signal produced thickness allow observer really slice definition eliminates information means pinhole plane eliminated final essentially whole carefully focusing different planes possible optically section slicing bread 3d relationships interior structures similar fluorescent electron discussed something magnified beyond certain resolution resulting blurry maintain properties electrons simple better needed reaches 100 000x million times "},{"id":"c733d06e04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Advanced Staining","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/prokaryotes-and-eukaryotes\/advanced-staining","description":"","text":"beyond basic staining cells improve contrast visibility there number techniques highlight specific structures these categories differential stains structural stain differences between otherwise similar looking provide ability visually distinguish using microscope react differently based chemical composition organism common distingishes different types bacteria found nature structure consists plasma membrane additional layer peptidoglycan possible thick while other second phospholipid procedure differentially becomes colorless clearly distinguishable under certain unique contain large amounts glycolipids takes advantage because containing stained carbol fuchsin color rinsed alcohol medically important organisms identified technique including cause tuberculosis leprosy particular selectively making visible example bacterial capsules endospores resistant since difficult remove present spore notoriously easily however parts picture above shows bacilli where added capsule glycolax helps attach surfaces teeth medical catheters protects attack immune system thats pathogenic often produce sized another simple method negative shown below flagella motile around little propellers search nutrients liquid environment patterns sometimes times opposite spread surface makes become following image "},{"id":"c751365e04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Microbial Cell Structures","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/prokaryotes-and-eukaryotes\/microbial-cell-structures","description":"","text":"living cells certain features common enclosed plasma membrane cytoplasm inside contain nucleic acids ribosomes transport mechanisms though these things between prokaryotes eukaryotes there differences their multiple chromosomes stored special structure called nucleus prokayotes single chromosome floats around types actually somewhat different other specific structures unique eukaryotic listed earlier biology lesson discuss basic thing about bacterial shape bacteria sorts shapes round cocci bacilli which shaped quite something would coccobacillus curve comma vibrio corkscrew spring referred spirillum spirochete making interesting often times cluster together patterns using microscope diplococci sometimes chains streptococci clusters characteristic staphylococci particular pattern looks linked chain depicted white centers endospores later "},{"id":"c760b7a004fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Other Types of Cells","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/prokaryotes-and-eukaryotes\/other-types-of-cells","description":"","text":"aside prokaryotes there other major groups cells these archea course eukaryotes features types discussed below archaea thought characteristics though understand closer anything primitive closely resemble first found primordial early earth today extreme environments unique metabolism living perfer temperature hyperthermophilic others prefer temperatures psychrophilic methanogens convert co2 h2 methane tolerate variations concentrations earlier bacteria ubiquitious happily places where survive fungi large diverse organisms single celled yeast molds mushrooms encompass different yeasts round split similar reproduce filamentous called hyphae sometimes divided sections which septate penicillium quite helpful agriculture examples crops significant amount fruit becomes ruined before making stores because saprophytic means decompose plant animal matter enzymes break about organic thrive moist particular parts their while spores numbers protozoa larger througout environment water range habitats active moving around trophozoite enter dormant stage bacterial endospore number pathogens including giardia contaminant trichomonas cryptosporidium plasmodium malaria "},{"id":"c55e5c3204fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Control of Microbes","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/control-of-microbes","description":"","text":" learning objectives distinguish between sterilization disinfection antiseptic describe order microbial resistance control methods different types explain differences radiation filtration osmotic pressure controls growth properties effective chemical agent phenol coefficient works characterize chemicals antibiotics discovered characteristcs mechanisms which bacteria antibiotic arises determined microorganisms exist capable causing disease medical community scrambled devise presence these organisms beginning routine washing sanitation aseptic surgical techniques science dominates lives sorts ideas about microbes insert first portion pasteur video"},{"id":"c56f7db404fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Radiation","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/control-of-microbes\/radiation","description":"","text":"there kinds radiation control microbial growth ionizing think about someone mentions chernobyl three island place where homer simpson works causes breakages other light common example damaging living things thing kills nuclear bombs powerplants wants radioactive material dumped nearby physically breaks obviously causing serious mutation least effective spores which divide cells viruses though reason useful bacterial items sterilized spices pharmaceutical drugs products hamburger widely means preventing poisoning frankly people scared allow problem making after saying person become because theyve still sometimes midly toxic chemicals formed certain materials damages thymine dimer formation frameshift mutations radicals react damage penetrate surface treating bench center sanitize water lowes depot device attached household pipes clean house "},{"id":"c57e547404fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Filtration","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/control-of-microbes\/filtration","description":"","text":"since bacteria couple microns possible liquid through filter allow cells filtration remove microbes liquids cannot tolerate being heated autoclave media contain vitamins antibiotics would destroyed however nutrients smaller entire these pores membrane large image shows setup sterile container reservoir fluid filtered vacuum creates bottom draws trapped course viruses small enough filters available organisms "},{"id":"c58cd24c04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Osmotic Pressure","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/control-of-microbes\/osmotic-pressure","description":"","text":" already discussed effects cells hypertonic environment water become dehydrated olden times before refridgeration common practice barrels preserve smoked involved dehydration addition different chemical residues inhibit growth method preserving fruits berries takes advantage creating solution sugar create fruit preserves prevent spoilage microbes throught essentially creates cannot tolerate irony carbohydrate source would otherwise perfect growing"},{"id":"c59c5f4604fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Resistance Mechanisms","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/control-of-microbes\/resistance-mechanisms","description":"","text":"bacteria available number strategies avoid effects antibiotic mutations protein shape changes longer interact antibiotics cases attack itself below listed mechanisms resistance organic molecules specific function enzymes directly degrade structure example penicillin called lactam lactamase enzyme destroys rendering useless bacterial structures certain destroy resist entry antibiotcs interior effective mutation surface receptors enter slowing which these difference remove allow membrane proteins actively expel manage inside efficient doses removed ineffective change binding sites since prokaryote interfere their prevent negates effect synthesis different parts ribosome leaves unable cause alter metabolic pathways sulfonamides disrupt folic pathway alternate manufacture necessary intermediates bypass normal shuts another provide nutrients "},{"id":"c59ea13e04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Antibiotic Mechanisms II","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/control-of-microbes\/antibiotic-mechanisms-ii","description":"","text":"antibiotics affecting protein synthesis aminoglycosides include streptomycin which disrupts causing misreading bacterial wrong amino acids placed chain leading defective enzymes proteins these membrane shape actually allows antibiotic enter tetracycline binds ribosomes blocks ability cannot added blocking works metabolically active cells inhibitors 39 bacteriostatic while toxic there effects including destruction normal flora extended opportunistic pathogens gettigng deposited calcified tissues teeth happen children stained finally causes photosensitivity means sunburn caution needed outside macrolides erythromycin attached ribosome release effective penicillin alternative those allergic often repiratory tract infections antitbiotic chloramphenicol enzyme forms peptide bonds breaking older resistant strains bacteria anymore developed countries affects concentrations anemia leukemia cases topical creams however developing world still commonly because cheap readily available inhibit nucleic rifamycin selectively polymerase eukaryotes positive trouble penetrating membranes negative interestingly being colored impart orange color patient urine sweat quite harmless noticable quinolones group synthetic drugs interfere unwinding during replication result fragmentation hospital acquired nosocomial metabolism metabolic antagonists competitive structure similar natural substrate attach prevent alter function category particularly interesting since takes advantage unique feature humans sulfonamides interferes produce folic precursor aminobenzoic essential needs produces tries manufacture process sometimes grabs molecule sulfonamide wastes thing enough affect machinery create before cause severe reactions people widely "},{"id":"c5ac757a04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Types of Chemical Agents","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/control-of-microbes\/types-of-chemical-agents","description":"","text":" soaps detergents mildly alkaline there partial effect mostly however 39 matter molecules dissolving membrane cells disrupt structure destroy these additional compounds triclosan added bacterial which redundant calling microbe killing recently considered removing products market including deodorants toothpaste mouthwash concerns bacteria becoming resisitant allergy related notice public restrooms dispensers prevent theft hygenic purposes studies conducted where various studied cases 100 strains isolated single microbes actually survive often similar manner sometimes referred quarternary ammonium clean disinfect become effective presence organic material halogens category chemicals found periodic table widely pretty harsh chlorine toxic active ingredient bleach iodine antiseptic bromine places smell chloring inappropriate pools inside house heavy metals commonly silver teeth fillings because degradable solution nitrate flush newborns infection present birth canal later antibiotic cream resistance popular again mercury topical mertiolate stuff selenium common dandruff shampoo fungi copper sulfate water pipes homes works algae growth alcohols alcohol solubilize denature proteins while concentrated better 70 95 phenols phenol derivatives lysol example based cleaner benefit unlike others disinfection action persist hours another creosote rotting railroad beams telephone poles brown black substance prevents decomposition oxidizing agents hydrogen peroxide h2o2 oxygen damaging certain forms strong oxidation easily tissue nearby especially against anaerobes samples point likely scrape watch bubble screaming aldehydes examples include formaldehyde glutaraldehyde rapidly inactivate enzymes simply cease function organism chemical control methods quite known carcinogens antiseptics manufacture carpeting particle board construction fumes slowly released years gaseous compound today ethylene oxide called sterilant entire treatment sterilize plactics drugs other discussed enough extremely special chamber autoclave holds involved ventilation important before opened method sterilization spices pharmaceutical surgical supplies plasticware plates pipettes sterilized"},{"id":"c6da00f204fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Characteristics of Antibiotics","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/control-of-microbes\/characteristics-of-antibiotics","description":"","text":"fundamental principle chemotherapy selective toxicity compound treat infectious disease harmful parasites cells essence ehrlich 39 magic bullet distinguishes antibiotic which attacks bacteria disinfectants antiseptics gargling bleach certainly clear strep throat horribly tissue chemical agents inactivate microbes inanimate surfaces cannot internally something different fortunately antimicrobial readily available world these organisms essentially engaged warfare other organism neighbors gains competitive advantage survival particular produce variety killing compounds spore forming including members bacillus streptymyces groups antibiotics fungi penicillium effects growth viability exhibit bacteriostatic prevent their multiplication outright relies active immune response actually destroy invading because infections become difficult patients weakened system anyone immunocompromised effect bacteriocidal types drugs directly followup responses major drawback metabolically growing mycobacteria tuberculosis leprosy effectively treated category "},{"id":"c6e6148204fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Antibiotic Mechanisms","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/control-of-microbes\/antibiotic-mechanisms","description":"","text":"basis selective toxicity antibiotic rests ability attack interfere structure found bacterial cells there 5 mechanisms which inhibition synthesis membrane function protein nucleic enzymes metabolic pathways click enlarge antibiotics active penicillin derivatives ampicillin amoxicillin bacteria build peptidoglycan weakens making positive susceptible lysis hypotonic environments tends growing building components since contain relatively toxic allergic reactions always possibility everyone experiences complications cephalosporins considered generation group activity against negative newest methicillin resistant staph aureus infections particularly nasty illness option anyone other drugs category include bacitracin effective kidneys topically abrasions component neosporin cream isoniazid treat tuberculosis vancomycin another commonly often those polymyxins action similar detergent integrates within disrupts outer become sensitive osmotic pressure membranes integrity longer control unique bacteriocidal actively kidney resort strains serious urinary tract infection "},{"id":"c6ecaa9004fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Antibiotic Resistance","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/control-of-microbes\/antibiotic-resistance","description":"","text":"issue major concern modern medicine development antibiotic resistance bacteria these drugs widely misused bacterial antibiotics after produce would unfortunate based number characteristics where mutations source developing methods circumvent actions happen cells undergo division exposed mutagens sorts mutation grown speak appear chromosome however acquire whole genes other sources overnight become resistant transformation transduction conjugation plasmids contain multiple sensitivity testing routine called kirby bauer measures effectiveness different physicians determine effective traits spread population naturally susceptible consider disease causing which exactly particular remains alive start reproduce create entire equally resisitant crucial finish prescription stopping halfway better allows strongest survive infection comes ineffective doctor another strains today decades people taking properly worse cases doctors proscribe needed parents their theyll faster being child viral useless years caved pressure coupled widespread agriculture animals healthier fatter meatier situation becoming difficult engaged biological warfare infectious diseases watch develop makes process repeats scientists worry respond organism emerge cannot treat 500 forced patients comfortable manner arrange common spreads easily control pandemic plague "},{"id":"c72a67ea04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Microbial resistance","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/control-of-microbes\/microbial-resistance","description":"","text":"number microbes target control methods ranging bacteria fungi viruses these relatively others example endospore forming challenging following chart shows which organisms eradicate other terms useful discussing bacteriocidal agents actually vegetative cells destroy spores bacteriostatic prevent growth general disinfectants antiseptics overall effectiveness method depends factors present greatly impact harder environmental temperature liquid affect particular works dosage concentration agent alter diluted bleach quickly concentrated amount would sometimes presence inhibitory matter organic material lastly simply endospores vetetative structure contribute resistance positive resistant negative mycobacterium tuberculosis particularly "},{"id":"c7455b8604fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Physical Methods: Heat","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/control-of-microbes\/physical-methods-heat","description":"","text":"different effects living organisms temperatures oxidize organic matter thats effective method tends destroy material being sterilized metal glass effectively treated capable taking needed moist steam affect function proteins cause shape denature since cells enzymes carry metabolism utterly would pasteurization heating vegetative without changing basic structure fluid ruining flavor however things still spoil properly doesnt forever because fridge disinfection acheived fluids boiled 10 minutes water supply becomes contaminated alert given customers disinfect before consuming sterilization requires 121 degrees 30 boils 100 possible boiling actually hotter making under pressure autoclave large cooker materials periods usually enough endospores sealed pumped chamber higher temperature penetrate liquids sterilize course handle pressures media instruments cloth plastics though "},{"id":"c753d96804fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Chemical Agents","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/control-of-microbes\/chemical-agents","description":"","text":"americans variety chemicals everyday basis purpose making everything around clean never wanted dirty clothes meaning dishes rooms could argue annoyingly sterile environment reducing exposure microbes particularly pathogens extended lifespan humans decades beyond typical hundred years especially fascination killing 99 9 germs aisle found grocery store dozens products specifically designed marketed lives course important select agent phenol coefficient something effectively bathroom however microbe power primary concern chemical thats effective inhibiting growth surface 3 hours stains bathtub requires breathing smells rotton 25 bottle other factors before cleaning market first relatively quickly bacteria destroyed instantly acting agents better following chart shows effectiveness various percentage youll notice water mixture alcohol acetone works faster 70 ethanol result tincture iodine brown stuff mother young mercury mertiolate addition being organisms working there relevant would helpful toxic formaldehyde excellent destroying nothing solution commonly preserve biology specimens science class pickled fetus carcinogen hence sprayed kitchen sometimes soluble solvents benzene needed these arent either should leave discolored behind stored periods without degrading after whole become useless weeks society accept really dollars wants spend 100 house lastly pleasant smell silliest concernes raised companies concerned about marketing standpoint someday every single product trying attention fresh mountiain spring things world rather smelling actual actually parents visit spray lysol assume cleaned because seems bizarre trained significant others fridge "},{"id":"c7581b4004fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Control overview","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/control-of-microbes\/control-overview","description":"","text":" chemical physical control microorganisms determined exist capable causing disease medical community scrambled devise presence growth these organisms beginning routine washing sanitation aseptic surgical techniques science microbial dominates lives sorts ideas about microbes sterilization describe destruction something includes surface fluid surprisingly difficult acheive disinfection process leads reduction pathogens harmless levels imply sterilized merely longer there difference pathogen organism thats other terms refer state commonly antiseptic externally tissues destroy inhibit disinfectant tends harsh generally reserved cleaning surfaces however spores present hydrogen peroxide effectively clean cause moderate tissue damage stings bleach sting neither substance would effective internal gargle throat sanitization removing reduce contamination often industry medicine click enlarge"},{"id":"c7631bda04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Discovery of Antibiotics","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/control-of-microbes\/discovery-of-antibiotics","description":"","text":"early microbiologists identify which microbes responsible different diseases there interest figuring these first knowing enemy vaccination preventing disease pasteur others develop functional vaccines however method prevents onset someone treated vaccine about those already second attack using compounds bacteria leave cells alone behind ehrlics magic bullet kills people person working problem alexander fleming scottish doctor worked medical corps during ideally suited numbers massive infections never heard could antiseptics wound flemings research concluded caused depressing normal immune system activity essese making matters worse after enzyme lysozyme naturally found tears saliva antibacterial properties great discovery suitable production injection patients still trying notoriously messy researcher vacation expecting plates stored corner table experiments ruined green begun growing ruining before tossing garbage noticed placed pattern recognized producing similar turns common penicillium indeed produce compound killed completely harmless humans greatest discoveries modern medicine accident nearly discarded isolated produced where saved untold lives intersting aside british government fully outbreak americans willing scene movie colleague managed smuggle britain united states sprinking spores throughout their clothes capured petri dishes penicillin "},{"id":"c845069404fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Phenol Coefficient","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/control-of-microbes\/phenol-coefficient","description":"","text":" there varitey products available soaps detergents bleach lysol which effective another comparing effectiveness cleaning agent measurement called phenol coefficient consistent reference needed produced describe being known standard years chemical lister spray during surgery began practice asepsis medicine chemicals afterward compared first particular strains salmonella typhi staphylococcus aureus broth culture these organisms grown under standardized conditions concentration tested against value 1 other lower number 0 8 higher 9 specific mechanism action either deals membrane cellular protein function agents alcohols disrupt microbes inhibit destroy denature proteins sometimes effect permanent destruction structure bacteriocidal temporary bacteriostatic growth removed resume"},{"id":"c5607bb604fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Medical Microbiology II","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/medical-microbiology-ii","description":"","text":"second survey pathogenic microorganisms "},{"id":"c575fb6204fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Neisseriae","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/medical-microbiology-ii\/neisseriae","description":"","text":"neisseria family negative diplococci aerobic metabolism prefer atmostphere slightly elevated co2 levels difficult sensitive drying sunlight there pathogenic groups meningitidis meningococcus which leading cause bacterial meningitis gonorrhoeae gonococcus common sexually transmitted infection humans known organism become infected exposure someone problem normal flora upper respiratory tract 5 15 population carrier infectious months easily spread others coughing sneezing kissing closed military barracks college dorms extremely 90 documented necessarily manages nasopharynx bloodstream meningococcemia sepsis result meninges membranes cover brain spinal causing inflammation serious condition presents symptoms fatigue fever headache confused something fatality significant 10 patients survive since present percentage adults antibodies blood indication previous newborns level immunity maternal protection starts about 6 point 2 years children meningococcal disease responds penicillin given preventatively anyone exposed patient prevention involves ventilation staying large crowds possible 39 contract illness clinical setting isolation procedures normally prevent stage before officially diagnosed 3 vaccines available living working crowded conditions schools gonorrhea french meaning brothel forms infect produce virulent structure allows attach urinary organims inhabits mucous genitalia acute purulent discharge while males females without commonly cases 80 female asymptomatic causes painful urination usually quite right untreated possiblethe testes sterility ability other regions likely treatment either uterus fallopian tubes again called pelvic inflammatory complications further heart tissues endocarditis arthritis develop gonococcal infections typically restricted locations protect strains enzyme destroys cannot somone becomes during pregnancy mother birth opthalmia neonatorum blindness treated states requires automatically choice gonorrheal first widespread particular aside battlefield wounds received history almost untouched effective drugs remaining resistance treatments antibiotics solution sliver nitrate later decades erythromycin tetracycline cream antibiotic hospitals going silver solutions methods seeing increased attention infectivity single gives 25 cance incubation period short substantial number women chronic carriers posing insurmountable eradication "},{"id":"c58475a204fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Spirochetes","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/medical-microbiology-ii\/spirochetes","description":"","text":"spirochetes group bacteria named curvy corkscrew shape there different species couple significant pathogens treponema pallidum which causes syphillis borrelia burgdoferi disease sexually transmitted infection progresses through series ultimately leading death organism coiled cannot using standard brightfield microscopy darkfield needed grown methods animals tissue culture making extra difficult study given specific growth conditions survive ouside little chance exposure fomite direct sexual contact untreated progress 3 stages result primary breaks after eventually painless blister forms incubation period varies several months weeks typical females cervical lesions noticed initial fades passes proceeds secondary spread other mucous membranes causing pronounced stage casual month seeming leaving patient cured about third cases tertiary years inactivity destructive internal organs these bones circulatory system central nervous paralysis blindness aneurysms major blood vessels organ failure syphilis newborn utero during birth responds penicillin effective vaccine prevention early detection treatment identifying people before important organisms humans insect vector epidemic sometimes relapsing fever condition headache muscle lasting 10 interval symptoms again cycle fatality 40 typically heart another endemic eradicated caused while similar difference repeats times lower 5 8 complications possible known connecticut where first documented appeared 1970 39 interesting mechanism comes field lesser extent white tailed infested ixodid poppy bites animal ingests summertime outside though areas ticks found yards fields recreate jumps person seeking gains entry human accident really thrive oftentimes notice attached produce distinctive bulls noticable quarter realize infected sypmptoms begin joint fatigue often passed having playing soccer exhibit those summer running around however happen regular intervals later severe neurological cardiac problems start surface joints affected arthritis antibiotics administered since diagnosis delayed further doses diagnosed progression course permanent damage happened pulled market effectiveness "},{"id":"c593f81004fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Bordetella","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/medical-microbiology-ii\/bordetella","description":"","text":"bordatella pertussis organism infects upper respiratory tract humans animals whooping cough progressive condition tends issue small children though anyone disease microbe entirely limited human prefers amongst cilia trachea bronchial passageways infection completely noninvasive causes cellular damage merely inhibits normal funtions 10 incubation period followed onset symptoms stage organisms carried aerosols produced coughing sneezing patient particularly highly contagious after moves lower deeper lungs bacteria cause phenomenon called ciliostasis freezing movement these remove clear mucous addition toxins inflammation narrowing which leads bouts extreme become child vomits convulsions takes unique pattern tries breathe through contricted bronchioles video below sounds those childhood diseases verge extinction until vaccine began effective decades parents refuse their vaccinated recent years there resurgence "},{"id":"c5a2d33a04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Yersinia","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/medical-microbiology-ii\/yersinia","description":"When people hear about plague it conjurs up the history of medieval Europe when half of the population became sick or died. There is some speculation about what disease or group of diseases are truly ","text":"people about plague conjurs history medieval europe population became there speculation disease group diseases truly responsible widespread death those today bubonic synonomous infection yersinia pestis bacterium transmitted humans through bites fleas organism lives inhabit other rodents making endemic problem proximity these bitten infected microbe 1 6 after being spread local lymph nodes where multiplies eventually swell buboes photo shows swollen typical ogranism bloodstream transported lungs causing severe necrotizing hemorrhagic pneumonia known pneumonic which person another aerosolized droplets coughing sneezing highly contagious mortality approaching 100 initial onset entire process 2 4 remote regions southwest sylvatic sometimes found ground squirrels chipmunks rather cities progression though usually hikers campers hunters rural inhabitants contact treatement antibiotics effective diagnosed quickly treat prevention preferred control removal living environment vaccine available reserved daily basis "},{"id":"c73a61d604fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Vibrio","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/medical-microbiology-ii\/vibrio","description":"","text":"vibrio negative inhabit intestinal tract humans natural organism pathogen family cholerae causative agent cholera infections starts ingestion contaminated especially drink water supplies usual culprit killing disease crops anywhere lived close together using single source local river organisms usually killed stomach still large enough badly result survivors making small intestine secrete toxin interferes absorption digestive rather absorbing intestines bloodstream causes hypersecretion exact reverse normally happens during leads resulting amounts watery diarrhea patients 10 20 liters fluid milliliter contain 1 000 microbes significant problem authorities regarding effective disposal heavily takes individuals producing gallons fluids being dumped supply thousands short amount after incubation period couple vomiting these rates quickly severe dehydration metabolic acidosis cardiovascular shock death interestingly infection itself damage trouble comes depending severity often possible times intravenous replacement necessary patient efficiently replaced course without lasting effects endemic countries africa clean drinking where sanitation outbreaks diseases happen developed places foodstuffs become coast sometimes outbreak improperly cooked shellfish access available there vaccines vaccination gives protection 6 months 2 years effectiveness falls 50 ideal immunity therefore prevention method keeping everyone healthy "},{"id":"c743564c04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Legionella","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/medical-microbiology-ii\/legionella","description":"","text":"legionella pneumophilia first recognized airborne disease causing agent large outbreak pennsylvania american legion convention philadelphia 1976 numbers attendees infected course 80 hospitalized 16 illness organism other emerging diseases always around sometimes takes fully studied understood these bacteria something slightly temperature under elevated levels co2 lungs ideal location growth comes versions milder called pontiac fever incubation period hours never proven fatal there version cough signs pneumonia after 2 5 patients recover legionellosis problematic those exposed develop become longer almost symptoms start headache chest developing blown chills evades immune system survives phagocytosis multiplies within destroys macrophage since cells preventing makes serious virulence factor death cardiovascular shock respiratory arrest however usually happens immunocompromised elderly vaccine available antibiotics generally effective infection prevention unfortunately organisms widely present water concentrated facilities standing cooling towers conditioning buildings likely source among members philly years physical plant worker while cleaning equipment building campus found shower heads hospital rooms infrequently locations easily cleaned sprays where inhaled often significant threat nosocomial cases older shoppers vegetable section grocery stores fussy shopper endlessly picking through produce looking perfect spends breathing spray vegetables ongoing sources prevent spread considered candidate weaponization bioweapon "},{"id":"c5627b2804fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Immunology","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/immunology","description":"","text":"course topic broken parts first learn about immune system recognizes destroys foreign materials including pathogens cells astray second understanding diagnostics treatment disease "},{"id":"c708707c04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Immune System","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/immunology\/immune-system","description":"","text":"completion lesson describe function lymphatic vessels features organs concept antigen nonspecific immune responses system cells difference between specific immunity events pathway characterize functions major classes antibodies outline impact allergies minor serious"},{"id":"c867c13404fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Key Principles","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/immunology\/immune-system\/key-principles","description":"","text":"immunological specificity immune system ability specifically target individual invading organisms particular bacterium virus targeted every bacteria molecule unique tertiary structure recognized differentiated shape called antigen designed antigens foreign order identify cells being distinctive stuck membrane complex marker found determined becomes important things autoimmune diseases heart transplants donors attacked recipient recognize these markers memory another feature involves become given disease remembers infection mount larger faster response exact second slight difference require start again people getting mutates longer shapes chicken three times possible dozen winter because fairly stable there strains other constantly strain different dealing something vaccines available others contains several popular troublesome predicted quite still bother threatening vaccination provides exposure killed weakened first earlier graph exposed serious intact pathogen going gives better third "},{"id":"c874e75604fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Nonspecific Barriers","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/immunology\/immune-system\/nonspecific-barriers","description":"","text":"physical chemical barriers specific immune defenses include number general prevent invaders gaining entry these considered nonspecific because target particular invader rather everything barrier function forms durable constant shedding removes pathogens acidic repels microorganisms tears lubricate contain lysozyme saliva lubricates mouth rinses particles digestive tract contains earwax traps acids hydrochloric kills enter stomach mucus swept cilia removed swallowing sneezing urination slightly flushes urinary normal flora control harmful organisms competing against important covers internal tissues keeps bacteria viruses moisture effects residues inhibit microbial growth surface places moist where microbes antibacterial enzyme found reduces chances infection cavity harmless parts compete space present keeping population levels content prevents intestinal illnesses through alive small intestine cause disease another access point urine flush moving bladder drinking cranberry juice makes effective cleansing macrophages system cells 39 always screening continually search anything foreign destroy process called phagocytosis specialized endocytosis material bacterial brought exposed degradative enzymes complement proteins group bloodstream attack antibody attached lymphokines signals interleukins interferon coordinate attacks "},{"id":"c884583a04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Nonspecific Defenses","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/immunology\/immune-system\/nonspecific-defenses","description":"","text":"acute inflammation caused damage kills cells tissue bleeding occurs clotting mechanisms prevent blood local chemical signals released including histamine bradykinin prostaglandins these serve attract white through process chemotaxis similar person morning smell coffee breakfast follow their kitchen release which causes vasodilation increases capillaries become leaky causing swelling leads redness warming increased passes damaged tissues mucous membranes increase production antihistamines drugs taken reduce clear stuffy neutrophils accumulate numerous phagocytic squeeze attack invaders destroy small number pathogens eventually sometimes produce barrier fibrous connective around injury spread infection material becomes abscess fills forms pimple example normally macrophages clean interleukin 1 involved fighting infections aside phagocytosis secrete other fight induces fever drowsiness effect ensure rests conserves energy while interluekin directly bacterial death brain before bacteria begin think things getting fevers 105 107 degrees threatening human temperature serves optimal growth conditions metabolism rapidly mobilize immune system multiply doubling numbers every minutes population exponential populations double 10 hours single bacterium thousands millions thats makes slowly 20 instead there hundred couple thousand difference between slowing microbes dramatically reduces "},{"id":"c89798fa04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Specific Responses","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/immunology\/immune-system\/specific-responses","description":"","text":"specific immune response targets particular antigens system variety problems these include bacterial viral infections toxins cancer cells transplants strange after getting kidney quits working should thing things differently stranger which destroyed operates principle better destroy something useful ignore deadly infection pathways there fight potential called antibody mediated involves antibodies other pathway depends problem encountered invader circulating fluids target sometimes though 39 right examples listed below cases responses parasitic sources insect snake bites floating virus particle viruses inside cannot touched leave targeted infected transplanted"},{"id":"c8a9b20604fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Cell Mediated","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/immunology\/immune-system\/cell-mediated","description":"","text":"steps mediated immune response 1 process starts antigen presenting usually macrophage ingests foreign material incorporates piece surface membrane 2 everywhere travels present helper cells encounters 3 receptor their cleverly called protein specific shape matches becomes active there literally millions different shapes finds appropriate continue 39 takes before system respond infection image single person being tasked speaking everyone campus until spoke favorite roomate possible would 4 activated proceed stimulate another 5 cytotoxic stimulated search destroy misbehaving altered identity targeted wrong transplanted kidney attacked invaded viruses become cancerous markers fixated other inappropriate tasks marker recognized destroyed problem eliminated 6 tumor transplant slowly longer needed however number remain memory these encountered again following viral infections example easier fight multiple ready whole using earlier analogy instead yourself trying imagine friends splitting looking buildings faster "},{"id":"c8c4b10a04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Antibody Mediated","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/immunology\/immune-system\/antibody-mediated","description":"","text":"process antibody mediated response begins 1 macrophages interact helper cells activate stimulate specific useful makes antibodies against antigen causing trouble 2 proper found simulated divides exact copies itself clones 3 cloned undergoes maturing until becomes plasma specialized equipped produce protein 4 formed shape these secreted large amounts bloodstream where attach destruction 5 before infection dealt around quite awhile producing eventually however remain behind memory encountered again whole faster stronger"},{"id":"c8d98e7c04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Immunoglobulins","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/immunology\/immune-system\/immunoglobulins","description":"","text":"immunoglobulins antibodies proteins produced mature cells since shape antigen structure shaped letter thkey little headless stick person raised where antibody called variable region different antigens function there categories performs slightly pentamer because 5 connected together pinwheel manner 10 usually first secreted during infection commonly small enough cross mother developing fetus provide fetal immunity whatever immune dimer mucous covered surfaces digestive reproductive tracts inflammation allergies caused activity becomes embedded membrane basophils serves receptor these anytime someone exposed allergen binds directly basophil causing secrete vasodilators causes allergic reaction understood possible gauge level doing blood particular bloodstream amount circulating titer higher reading present disease drops booster immunization required "},{"id":"ca1f10a404fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Antibody Function","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/immunology\/immune-system\/antibody-function","description":"","text":"antibodies produced cells circulate through bloodstream attach themselves antigen designed attack however antibody doesnt anything itself perhaps neutralize toxin virus benefit making stick antigens foreign material phagocytosis macrophages destroy their efficiently tagged eating plain cereal wheaties cheerios sprinkle sugar attached bacteria initiate complement cascade bacterium sequence protein interactions called proteins circulating blood activated assemble surface bacterial result membrane penetrating circular interferes metabolism integrity burst killing "},{"id":"ca3086e004fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Categories of Specific Immunity","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/immunology\/immune-system\/categories-of-specific-immunity","description":"","text":"immunity acquired either naturally exposure everyday disease causing organisms artificially through injections about active process cells working together mount response generating memory passive would simply acquiring antibody titer without actually producing inside happens someone recovers usually lasting results comes level protection directly mothers antibodies before birth crosses placental barrier after breastfeeding delivers exposed vaccination sometimes develops other instances person needs booster shots occurs injection provide quick short example serum venom delivered artifically passsive immmunity since likely average bitten cobra there vaccinate theyll immune system solution against available given destroy snake proves lethal prepared various insect bites deadly black widow spiders scorpions antivenom correctly antivenin produced first collecting collected highly diluted injected animal horse rabbit begin produce follow increasing effectively increases blood drawn purified "},{"id":"ca43d65a04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Allergins","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/immunology\/immune-system\/allergins","description":"","text":"allergic reactions severe anaphylactic shock simple runny allergies merely inappropriate immune system response something usually considered harmless person becomes sensitized antigen after initial exposure second appropriate causes inflammation sometimes immediate other times delayed occurence begin produced first grass pollen inserted membranes receptor cells basophils these antibody membrane recognize directly there subsequent release histamine prostaglandin heparin digestive enzymes types overall effects depending degree sensitivity involves vasodilation localized scale fever massive throughout whole symptoms range congestion hives blown systemic occur chemicals cause bronchioles constrict reduced intake arterioles dilate capillaries become porous leads blood volume pressure plummets eventually circulation collapses typically happen cases shellfish strawberries people severely stings unless medical attention treatments short include antihistamine doses injector increases heart prevent circulatory collapse allergy shots encourage production having small exposures periods repeated injections hyper immunizes builds titer point where cannot trigger "},{"id":"ca600cbc04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Capillaries","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/immunology\/immune-system\/capillaries","description":"","text":"function capillaries continuously plasma surrounding tissues uncollected excess interstitial fluid would build tissue highly swollen specialized collect return bloodstream enters these vessels becomes lymph called lymphatic similar veins passes through "},{"id":"ca75451e04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Fluids","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/immunology\/immune-system\/fluids","description":"","text":"capillary structure lymphatic capillaries fluid enter cannot leave endothelial cells overlap allow interstitial flows pressure increases tissues fluids accumulate these function floor drain basement leaky washing machine water leaks collected removed before causes problem place where there carrying blood those places contain vessels carry excess avascular tissue lacking marrow cartilage parts central nervous system examples lymph bloodstream cycles following pumped under through plasma become buildup prevented results swelling edema drained addition protein recovered first enters passes larger muscle contractions valves direction moved veins along nodes finally returned passing filtered subclavian which heart "},{"id":"ca83baea04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Lymphatic System","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/immunology\/immune-system\/lymphatic-system","description":"","text":"lymphatic system described collecting excess fluids accumulate tissues means anything present those collected including invaders penetrate makes place cells immune attack related organs since collect immunity included there number function marrow blood production thymus maturation lymph nodes smaller nodules filters through these structures screen spleen similar except screened "},{"id":"ca90aaf204fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Lymphatic Organs","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/immunology\/immune-system\/lymphatic-organs","description":"","text":"thymus maturation immature cells produced marrow travel where develop fully functioning immune system largest active during childhood children spend their fighting infection after another really theyre building immunity carry through adulthood tremendous amount development occurs degenerates puberty matured lymph nodes located along vessels especially those groin shaped structure cleanse pathogens debris divided compartments called sinuses enters lymphatic valves direct inward filters exits opposite infections larger arrive fight invader physicians routinely check swollen latent perhaps mother glands around throat getting spleen organ filter performs function screens blood bacterial viral removing serves activation damaged often accident splenectomy performed remove necessary liver however patient susceptible without filtering invaders "},{"id":"ca9b07d604fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Immune System","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/immunology\/immune-system\/immune-system","description":"","text":"immune system designed foreign invaders quite telling recognizes antigens proceeds destroy antigen literally means antibody generator antibodies proteins attack something these things including bacteria viruses toxins blood typing markers every existence specific 3d shape recognize shapes belong inside 39 being looking young children often afraid accustomed considered stranger people their strangers target strange pathogens pathogen refers organism capable causing disease there kinds opportunistic really nasty organisms fully illness properties enabling microbe overcome defenses infect tissues normally infected other cannot someone unless person predisposing condition diabetes cancer weaken point where cause common bacterial viral enter multiply damage stream small numbers rapidly major infection different because obligate intracellular parasites access replicate themselves complete complex virus takes enzymes manufacture copies itself particles break killing release cells strategies classes "},{"id":"c71621ea04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Influenza ","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/immunology\/influenza","description":"","text":"lesson includes bonus section notes allow complete homework assignment information presented weekly merely forms background understand viruses influenza enough folder angel distant future businessman boards plane family hasnt three weeks happy doesnt runny grade fever sneezes sorry coming something course doused woman millions virus particles during infected business spewing microscopic organisms cabin airplane these inhaled other passengers their lungs where moist environment found within dozens people developed heavy cough shortly thereafter worse problems beginning another connecting dozen cities passenger takes families pandemic begins scenario experts agree question rather "},{"id":"c8bb732404fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Avian Flu","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/immunology\/influenza\/avian-flu","description":"","text":" called avian first 1997 39 influenza virus h5n1 birds point infected 18 people 6 making strain 33 mortality instance massive effort destroy major pandemic avoided passed peron another easily human widely present provide chance reassortment reemerged 2003 again persons recently mainland china since spread africa parts eastern europe march 2006 outbreaks reported turkey found chickens ducks domesticated current resistant 2 4 useful antiviral drugs market there vaccines available although companies racing develop infections cases transmission currently viruses variety infection genes could mutate would become worldwide lacks ability problem particularly deadly fairly 138 survive estimates range millions hundreds million alone about strains normally infect opposite species seems something exception humans takes large exposure cannot directly required airborne pathogen incorporate essentially change overnight serious these different together exchange answer capable being multiple exist quite happily recombine communicable through population"},{"id":"ca55914204fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Biology of Influenza","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/immunology\/influenza\/biology-of-influenza","description":"","text":"influenza viruses enveloped surface glycoprotein spikes contain helical capsid single strand inside virus enters endocytosis takes cellular machinery begins replicating itself subtyped 3 groups additionally viral proteins essential pathogenicity targeted immune system recover infection hemagglutinin responsible clumping blood cells protein helps attach entry there types antigen known h1 h2 h3 h16 neruaminidase release particles infect propagate antibodies against prevents spread reduces severity illness n1 n2 n3 n9 these variant strains combined describe specific strain example scientists concerned about h5n1 common caused pandemic 1918 antigenic variation drift minor changes allow evade attuned change missense mutations which shape destruction function shift dramatic structure brought rearrangement entire segments infecting different species avian human coexist exchange genes create entirely variations emerge humans immunity "},{"id":"ca6f47b804fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Influenza: the Disease","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/immunology\/influenza\/influenza-the-disease","description":"","text":"acute fever causing disease typically limiting means person usually recovers immunocomprimised patients eldery diabetics illness recommends following people shots 50 years anyone chronic medical conditions young children pregnant women healthcare providers being virus influenza specifically targets cells epithelial lining respiratory tract after antibodies produced against antigens mediated immunity important destroy remaining infected break reproductive cycle other complications occur trying symptoms instance giving aspirin cause reyes syndrome deaths almost always attributable secondary bacterial infections certain strains exception normally bacteria aureus strep pneumonia lethal infection minor develop croup antibiotics effective itself treat vaccines first defence viruses mutate however solid 6 months course thats developed place development depending biology there handful antiviral medications h5n1 avian strain tamiflu government process procuring 2 million doses during possible pandemic unfortunately estimated 100 would needed single company swiss giant roche dozen governments placed order ahead somewhere waiting another relenza equally companies scrambling others common throat headache cough nasal discharge stuffy malaise myalgia nausea diarrhea generally feeling crummy "},{"id":"ca7f987004fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Epidemiology of Influenza","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/immunology\/influenza\/epidemiology-of-influenza","description":"","text":" virus found endemic disease thats capable causing epidemics pandemics mostly strikes during winter months november march years there little impact other quite substantial things severity given season virulence strain immunological status population strains intrinsicly virulent others spread efficiently airborne greater ability cause infection significant tissue destruction combination changes antigenic structure subsequent immunity around people better builds individual increases higher likely epidemic occurr though individuals still strucure shift essentially restarts immune supply hosts since almost alive children 1918 pandemic entire human earth again susceptible against vanished outbreaks influenza often start adults several period outbreak roughly 10 20 however number reach 50 relatively tremendous 75 million school 100 000 require hospitalization those numbers double triple normal deaths restricted elderly medical problems complications pneumonia among under 65 prevention possible short total isolation going crowds chances transmission simply being someone coughing exposure turned masks attempt prevent releasing methods surely totally preventative common sense ideas hands healthy right sleep reduce stress protect least everything refrain smoking which causes damage lungs making easier started order needs criteria easily passed person variety humans before avian h5n1 unique never exposed ha5 antigen fortunately cases everyone chicken feces"},{"id":"c71b012e04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Applied Immunology","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/immunology\/applied-immunology","description":"","text":"completion lesson explain historical development vaccines compare contrast different types describe controversy surrounding antibodies treat disease difference between elisa tests "},{"id":"ca25997e04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Vaccines historically","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/immunology\/applied-immunology\/vaccines-historically","description":"","text":"vaccines oldest practical applications features immune system people noted someone recovered disease would again exposed later process variolation involves exposing uninfected individual infectious material either wound drainage dried ground lesion scabs chinese attempt control smallpox survived greater numbers those these images typical cowpox small lesions obviously serious country doctor named edward jenner experienced child noticed local milkmaids rarely often infection called similar fatal years undertook daring todays standards crimminal experiment vaccinated young illness after injected contract 21 instead inducing active immunity response antigen exposure course complement antibodies against population memory cells while increase titer immediately protective remaining allow mount rapid vigorous second provide cases wanted become polio easist effective recommended practice trick expose person without dealing symptoms potential damage older methods using killed attenuated decades another vaccine commonly component subunit "},{"id":"ca3851ae04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Whole Cell Vaccines","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/immunology\/applied-immunology\/whole-cell-vaccines","description":"","text":" killed inactivated vaccines organisms treated solution formalin capacity cause illness injected vaccine therefore these terribly effective formalized organism protein structures distorted since immune system needs 3d shapes often require follow booster shots person 39 lifetime examples include typhoid polio there longer available diseases caused direct action living merely secrete dangerous toxins environment disastrously affect human physiology botulinum toxin highly damaging motor neurons nerves control breathing tetanus causes muscle spasms prevent subtype toxoid toxiod bacterial develop immunity diptheria problems noted above attenuated another involves using strain become weakened alive grown manipulated genetically multiply hopefully blown disease whole intact going through process destroying invaded level develops lasts however chance antigen mutate strength version causing trying option immunocompromised patients example measles mumps rubella which contains varicella chickenpox"},{"id":"ca48ff9004fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Other Vaccine Types","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/immunology\/applied-immunology\/other-vaccine-types","description":"","text":" component subunit vaccines recent arguably vaccine option involves injection intact infectious agent whole reproducing example capsid protein virus would serve antigen since nucleic present cannot possibly reproduce cause illness immune system times these parts proteins through genetic engineering often called recombinant using technology process discussed biotechnology quite effective bonuses earlier without dangers involved problem producing current examples include hepatitis latest generation evolved failed therapy experiments attempt induce growth hormone production experiment induced antibodies scientists seized unexpected result trying produce genetically engineered injected directly remember insert desirable vector plasmid inject animal cells begin throughout insulin rather disease causing organism protect against giving which require boosters genes inserted continuous supply should strongly provoke response recently halted experimental because proved ineffective thing 39 working towards"},{"id":"ca53913a04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Vaccine Controversy","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/immunology\/applied-immunology\/vaccine-controversy","description":"","text":"great advancement medicine vaccines represents appreciated everyone smallpox longer exists nature polio diptheria tetanus whooping cough anymore people unaware significantly reduced yearly incidence diseases alone other countries annual number cases 1920 176 000 today since 2003 1940 148 6000 1954 35 1979 measles 1960 500 200 39 estimated vaccine saves million lives recommended adults recieve booster immunitiy seems years these prevalent developing nations without effective program evidence there including celebrities shall named fueled science internet refuse vaccinate their children though places require robust movement europe where mistrust government participate claim linked increase autistic tenuous mostly relates preservative production different reasons justify resistance vaccinations advocating alternative those trying generated hysteria understand major original scientific paper linking autism utterly discredited author falsified badly medical license british journal lancet print retraction power blame cause community catch shoddy study discredit still point studies knowing disavowed turns making living telling preventable illnesses while incorrect information continues circulate "},{"id":"ca6cc5d804fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Using Antibodies","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/immunology\/applied-immunology\/using-antibodies","description":"","text":"there number therapeutic antibodies medcine research going allow target components behaving properly allergies problem recall caused excess attack preventing binding cells xolair example similar strategies drugs designed prevent tissue rejection following organ transplant surgery developing cancer attach tumor antibody toxin ricin attached selective delivery poisons could destroy other treatments include using against something called necrosis factor alpha compound causes extreme inflammation patients inflammatory diseases severe rheumatoid arthritis reduce lower levels remicade humira advertised "},{"id":"ca7d8c9204fa11e388620050569d0","title":"ELISA Direct Method","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/immunology\/applied-immunology\/elisa-direct-method","description":"","text":"elisa enzyme linked immunosorbent assay since antibodies response specific antigen particular about theyll proper 3d structure allow therefore attach things nothing antibody colored visible microscope these special identify proteins there different procedures possible procedure thing direct sandwich method attached plastic plate solution added target protein present other visually determine really second identical binds forms however reacts reagent turns color changes indicates course unless detect presence medically significant liquid could indicate virus blood hormone urine sample exactly pregnancy works screening human chorionic gonadotropin "},{"id":"ca8a0db404fa11e388620050569d0","title":"ELISA Indirect","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/immunology\/applied-immunology\/elisa-indirect","description":"","text":"elisa enzyme linked immunosorbent assay indirect method starts attaching antigen itself surface blood sample example added antibody present attach problem trying visually since protein other possible attached produce color change positive result described before useful testing titer particular person exposed antibodies againt virus detect presence against indicate "},{"id":"c5649f3e04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Medical Virology","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/medical-virology","description":"","text":""},{"id":"c55964b604fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Future Lessons","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/medical-virology\/future-lessons","description":"","text":""},{"id":"c59811c004fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Survey of Microbial World","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/medical-virology\/future-lessons\/survey-of-microbial-world","description":"","text":""},{"id":"c5a4dc5204fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Bioterrorism","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/medical-virology\/future-lessons\/bioterrorism","description":"","text":"maybe"},{"id":"c864e12604fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Influenza","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/medical-virology\/influenza","description":"","text":""},{"id":"c566be2204fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Infections and Epidemiology","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/infections-and-epidemiology","description":"","text":" completing lesson should describe relationship organisms human explain difference between pathogen opportunistic steps infection events stage differences endotoxins exotoxins concept reservoir purposes epidemiology define basic terminology epidemiologists aspects descriptive meaning epidemiological rates"},{"id":"c573dce204fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Establishment and Spread","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/infections-and-epidemiology\/establishment-and-spread","description":"","text":"infection process involves pathogen setting speak cells evade immune defenses multiply cases spread initial invasion generally speaking there enough organisms present encounter stage cause disease symptoms exceptions types poisoning typically bacteria viruses first quickly depends conditions where located generation rapidly others slowly weeks months incubation period needed overcome early incite least patient undergoing transmit anyone latent subset until becomes infectious before onset symptomology means exists person developing doesnt without realizing example child exposed chicken sunday wednesday shedding virus classroom exposing other children however mother realize friday morning keeps therefore third grade stays chickenpox everyone class already thursday concept implications study epidemiology pattern certain poisonings which infections exception caused ingestion bacterial toxins these considered intoxications effects faster communicable intoxication event phase cycle using every genetic trick avoid outpace speed response chance usually prior dynamic dance being played between parasite pathogens whole devious tricks destruction ability survive phagocytosis macrophages secrete leukocidins actually white blood enzymes degrade connective tissue allowing original attack common feature again production capsule protects fooling system thinking carbohydrates nothing along capsules slime layers antibodies activate complement cascade major "},{"id":"c582583a04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Damage","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/infections-and-epidemiology\/damage","description":"","text":"causing disease symptoms state caused primarily damage pathogens become established reproduce sufficient numbers until person anything going onset being already underway particular pathogen varies cause multiple secrete variety extracellular enzymes death gangrene merely inflammation examples include hyaluronidase degrades component connective tissue collagenase collagen found coagulase causes clotting blood plasma fibrin bleeding depleting fibrinolysin hemolysin destroys cells exotoxins endotoxins which ranging effects these alter physiology tetanus botulism cholera about toxins induce inappropriate outright excessive immune response autoimmune diseases underlying previous infection different types summarized below there forms mechanical nature parasites various tubing systems vessels lymphatic things ducts leading blockages image shows happens blocked normally drain fluid tissues smash thumb swells return cardiovascular system swelling extremities condition called elephantisis another photo sitting click really "},{"id":"c591e7fa04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Exotoxins and Endotoxins","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/infections-and-epidemiology\/exotoxins-and-endotoxins","description":"","text":"bacteria produce number toxins categorized categories exotoxins endotoxins these bacterial primarily produced positive protein because highly specific 3d shape attacked digesting enzymes being somewhat unstable temperatures 60 denature render harmless stomach tends destroy exotoxin enough still effect antigenic strongly stimulate immune response which makes candidates toxoid vaccines tetanus shots example target particular receptor cells 39 anything means specifically certain toxic minute amounts ounce diptheria toxin would everyone large london enterotoxins subset intestinal tract causing vomiting diarrhea cramping abdominal interfere lining process solutes leave fluid clostridium cholera dysentary staphylococcal poising examples actually integral outer membrane negative called lipopolysaccharide differs greatly endotoxin quite stable heated since lipid sugar strong structure therefore vaccine mechanism action widespread active several portion inserts membranes white blood vascular endothelial tissue leading variety effects pyrogenic causes fever doses pressure neutrophils attacks system releases bloodstream reason someone massive infection bacteremia situation becomes serious irreversible hypotension plummets fatal systemic shock describe fluids cardiovascular including dehydration infectious vessels stream however normally transfusion saline solution bring volume matters worse problem dilated adding leads patient puffy swollen treatment includes vasoactive drugs digitalis heart beating harder condition another caused disseminated intravascular coagulation disease clotting mechanisms induced needed clots throughout ability result bleeds easily almost hemophilia "},{"id":"c5a0e51604fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Portals of Exit","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/infections-and-epidemiology\/portals-of-exit","description":"","text":"infection cycle pathogen escape spread hosts following shows pathogens leave others course final outcome quite literally death either immune response perhaps antibiotics leads recovery patient cases illness behing permanent organ damage meningitis because there abatement symptoms ultimately destroyed possible disease enter dormant state called latency particularly viral infections varicella chickenpox which remain years recurrence later "},{"id":"c5ae5b4204fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Epidemiology","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/infections-and-epidemiology\/epidemiology","description":"","text":"epidemiology scientific discipline originally dealt transmission infectious agents formally defined study distribution diseases injuries human population factors influence people there 3 basic purposes define disease problems identify contributing pathogenesis called etiology finding cause provide basis developing evaluating preventitive procedures public health practices before begin process figuring causes prevent things consider regarding scope enterprise first include injury moved beyond though still focus whether cases influenza falling steps number smoking related cancer killed vending machine accidents later studied second going concern specific track definition epidemic occurrence given clearly exceeds normal expectancy anyway depends expected based experience rabies community would alarm bells thousands hundreds running around sexually transmitted infections however exceedingly investigation investigators interested source infection think someone bitten likely wrong wikidpedia lists carrying animals turns dying accident thats being injured killing looked statistics measure thing third issue consideration geographic limits epidemiological studies could school encompass whole cover entire nation world geographical boundary possible finally frame onset hours perhaps years effects teens decades tracking figure lastly terms important prevalance total 1 million morbidity incidence illness period month 50 000 recorded common other mortality measures deaths centers control issues weekly newsletter keeps current outbreaks various extremely untreated 100 fatal "},{"id":"c6dd2f0c04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Reserviors","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/infections-and-epidemiology\/reserviors","description":"","text":"pathogens exist somewhere nature place where spread other victims reservoir these organisms their natural habitat transmitter suitable sometimes things human sexually transmitted infections reservoirs living summarized table carrier state important study epidemiology someone harboring pathogen organism along others without knowing identifying carriers population critical control methods going effective incubating illness spreads person shows outward signs disease unaware asymptomatic infected individuals eventually become convalescent longer feeling still harbor after recovers chronic cases perfectly healthy following lists types click enlage common animals exposed contracts contact animal called zoonosis zoonotic infection there whole diseases harbored yellow fever viral mosquitoes malaria another thats caused parasitic plague anthrax salmonella bacterial influenza humans virus lives exchanges genes deadly strains birds swine "},{"id":"c6e83c9404fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Epidemiology Future Topic","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/infections-and-epidemiology\/epidemiology-future-topic","description":"","text":"39 quite enough "},{"id":"c6f1792604fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Epidemiological Rates","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/infections-and-epidemiology\/epidemiological-rates","description":"","text":"measures morbidity mortality rates information 39 figure going given disease under study presented define distribution extent statistics 1 2000 people numbers require explanation number numeratory represents population which something happened condition bottom denominator noted numerator could happen usually expressed using 1000 10 000 makes easier comparisons versus 16 otherwise 50 cases 2500 52 3250 greater takes uniform denominators course these useful compared known should expected compare evident trying factors situations cancer smoke those would higher smokers things cause nothing smoking factor increases chances getting incidence normally 5 smoker 25 someone smokes increase easily misinterpreted typically about studies never actual somone comparing numerators times likely diabetes drink 32oz sometimes politics enters reporting others certain behaviors consider having brand energy 2 doubled thing happening however million still lottery jackpot above better actually winning rather ticket three tripled their again twice gonna astray regarding claim being another heart attack unless exercise exactly 4 6 without 100 meaningful based figures "},{"id":"c6f535ac04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Pattern of Infection","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/infections-and-epidemiology\/pattern-of-infection","description":"","text":"every infection follows certain pattern gaining access causing symptoms potential damage death organisms capable disease easily remember billions normal flora without consequence bacteria pathogens really about family friends there other harmful opportunistic require predisposing condition weakness immune system interaction between parasite complex person another equal their abilities cause virulent others virulence measure organism serious capsule produce highly damaging toxins different examples factors contribute particular before makes story exposed difference pathogen proper portal entry specific strain level immunity finally healthy individual general elderly succumb influenza thousands rarely fatal someone 20s diabetics undergoing chemotherapy susceptible infections those onset cases sequence events encounter leaves shown below click enlarge several pages explain these steps detail "},{"id":"c7038ec204fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Descriptive Epidemiology","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/infections-and-epidemiology\/descriptive-epidemiology","description":"","text":"describe occurrence disease necessary answer questions where important gather descriptive information because diseases multiple causes obvious infectious pretty straight forward organisms cause however things obesity factors influence progression condition which primary having vital cases person affected individuals young elderly susceptible typical college student large number fractures epidemic unless happens 20 males commonly gender affect females differently women prostate cancer breast though common turns combined death rates significantly higher difference begins utero prior birth longer variety reasons ethnic group groups people suffer certain general population african americans sickle anemia those nordic descent effect limited genetics among amish nearly unheard cervical strict sexual beliefs category carefully avoid effects socio economic environmental conditions poverty leads health options nutrition regardless ethnicity status occupation education access residence lifestyle choices relevant tracking epidemics often relates stress direct impact marital related mortality sexes lowest rated married followed singles widowed divorced hightest maternal genetic mother gives child downs syndrome cleft palate spina bifida increase mothers children their 30s 40s place describing location outbreak occur there basic distribution disese intuitive based natural boundaries about rocky mountain spotted fever animal reservoirs restricted climates types political these collected center tracks outbreaks submitted passed county coordinators submit state department entire united states world organization keeps track around entities following rivers ranges arbitrary lines denoting country border cross freely available conclude levels infection somehow never crosses vermont reality different counties would upstate illinois likely concentrated chicago fewer smaller communities could evenly spread throughout cannot boundary deceiving government epidemiologists changes distributions populations 3 patterns secular trends decrease periods decreases polio happened after introduction vaccines deadly illness disappeared cyclic regular intervals winter influenza sharp summer months pattern salmonella poisoning during cooking outdoors grills follows weather short fluctuations spikes event happen depending source spike attributed single exposure communicable agent behind develop within incubation period chemical example cluster respect since identify causing specific determined investigators given patients 12 hours attending wedding party caterer served prepared improperly refrigerated shrimp allows determination other propagated progressive patient comes latent starts spreading 10 another 100 increasing waves steadily building infected others friends norvirus cruise through dorms campus chickenpox spreads 2nd grade school eventually numbers threshold declared "},{"id":"c74d0b4204fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Human Host","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/infections-and-epidemiology\/human-host","description":"We live our entire lives quite literally, bathed in a sea of microorganisms. Every surface we touch, every external part of our body, even the air we breathe and the food and drink we swallow is dippe","text":"entire lives quite literally bathed microorganisms every surface touch external breathe drink swallow dipped layer bacteria viruses fortunately learned active efficient immune system keeps these organisms harming still nearly routine event times become fights invaders survive another youve noticed perpetual state illness actually necessary training infections later argued evidence suggests keeping children clean complications given ocean germs answer little complicated there dynamic interaction between encounter responds harmless organism deadly penetrate defenses where belong blood stream example inhabit bodies usually normal flora prevent incursion harmful first begin accumulate moment birth enounter until colonized unique different anyone population shifts around interact environment strains develop symbiosis typically unless accidentally through interior organs leaves alone compete which taking protect mostly innocuous organims however dangerous others "},{"id":"c75ca30404fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Encounter: Portal of Entry","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/infections-and-epidemiology\/encounter-portal-of-entry","description":"","text":"infection process begins first encounter pathogen science epidemiology study diseases transmitted population basic track where people exposed things interact objects carry organisms daily basis family friends school field airplane public restroom lecure 300 students handing dollar coffee there hundreds touch around every being pathogens youll entry through called portals different right portal cause respiratory virus elbow utterly harmless hands problem various common listed below click image larger microbial infections contracted methods exogenously endogenously exogenous source known communicable disease others become transmission direct personal contact someone insects example indirectly drink droplets indirect pathway interaction fomite inantimate object handle coins bills dirty money nothing other method route strange sounds yourself bacteria normal flora opprtunistic harbor makes location another enounter event environmental exposure events water stepping rusty tetanus thats something catch important aspect point amount organism youre dangerous numbers actually initiate infectious later critical cells required anther "},{"id":"c860373404fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Attachment and Entry","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/infections-and-epidemiology\/attachment-and-entry","description":"","text":"because organism manges portal entry around thing pathogen deeper tissues mucous membrane surface somewhere respiratory tract digestive urinary reproductive surfaces where bacteria attach progress infection immune defenses these areas pretty pathogens ability overcome process adherence requires things receptor adhesion protein bacterial already discussed structures present allow shown below without would cells system continually removed drink continously flush urine rinses tracts secreted membranes continuously defense mechanisms cannot proceed actual penetration barriers possible however survive phagocytosis catch speak other parts insect bites introduce viruses directly bloodstream types trauma thumbtack lowly papercut normal flora "},{"id":"c568ea5804fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Virology","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/virology","description":"","text":""},{"id":"ca66110204fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Biology of Viruses","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/virology\/biology-of-viruses","description":"","text":"learning objectives definition virus describe structure genetic makeup viruses compare contrast viral cycles cultivated "},{"id":"caab7a8004fa11e388620050569d0","title":"What is a virus?","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/virology\/biology-of-viruses\/what-is-a-virus","description":"","text":"question virus answer think viruses somewhat unique living world function reproduce things makes complicated issues considered obligate intracellular parasites calls called organisms cannot enter replicating machinery replication transcription translation their enzymes another other quite capable taking completely disrupting normal funtion bidding interfere genes cells including inserting genome chromosome plant animal bacterial estimate 10 viral origin whether sense consider active inactive particles large diverse highly specific infect there animals others these bacteriophage phage aside preferred categorized according structure helical icosahedral example sometimes cataloged based nucleic acids contain 39 simlar prions merely protein invading strange begin discuss "},{"id":"cb9a3c9204fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Viral Structure","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/virology\/biology-of-viruses\/viral-structure","description":"","text":"first thing about viruses really small early microbiology could virus light microscope people would fluids through filters catch bacteria fluid remained infectious given animal filterable 10x 1000x smaller structure seems pretty simple basically nucleic surrounded protective protein shell called capsid proteins capsomers definite shape assembled together viral particle material surrounds referred nucleocapsid intact helical icosahedral multi sided games capsids complex something 39 often times there packaged inside helps hijack allow copies itself later sometimes phospholipid layer unlike regular membrane envelope protect entry eventual infection contain spikes attachment since these outer structures 3d recognized targeted immune system genes mutate change little disrupt ability recognize target gives different strains which implications medicine explains always every winter exposed certain should after getting colds because becoming enter retirement hundreds still emerge "},{"id":"cb9ea0f204fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Viral Genetic Information","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/virology\/biology-of-viruses\/viral-genetic-information","description":"","text":"heart virus genes carry unlike other cells 39 discussed viruses double stranded their method storing information while indeed strand these array living machinery needed reproduction therefore transcription things moving inside typically viral consist takeover functions everything provided addition strangeness whole prepackaged ready encoded directly strands translation single world contains about every possible option stranger retroviruses start basic nucleic unique protein called reverse transriptase exactly sounds enzyme converts exact process normally "},{"id":"cba1e2bc04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Replication: Lytic cycle","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/virology\/biology-of-viruses\/replication-lytic-cycle","description":"","text":"cycle viruses follows basic pattern involved entering using cells machinery create virus particles which released spread infect while there variations process involves steps lytic distruction lysis release whole hours particle attaching adsorption phase thing remember extremely fussy about liver hepatitis respiratory infection affects upper tract infects others reason these specific attachment typically looking protein receptor found preferred thats helper capsid proteins spike enveloped attach receptors certain specificity precise cannot human other multiple species centers gains entry penetration uncoating penetrate membrane nucleic material stratagies bringing endocytosis pathway later unpacking viral contents involve envelope fusing releasing cytoplasm three synthesis where acids copied produced depending number pathways replicate genes produce thousand copies genome needed direct production enzymes manufacture relying polymerases ribosomes assembly capsids assembled around associated leave result destruction sometimes however slowly without wholesale called persistent latent weeks decades perhaps youve commercials asking chickenpox child shingles their treat someone exposed symptoms years particularly retroviruses incorporate chromosome become provirus leads different lysogenic "},{"id":"cba54ace04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Bacteriophage and Lysogeny","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/virology\/biology-of-viruses\/bacteriophage-and-lysogeny","description":"","text":"lysogenic cycle types viruses first noticed feature bacterial bacteriophage phage short specific which cells infect medicine strains given species further identify epidemiological purposes possible particular sample organism responsible outbreak poisoning example knowing strain eventually bacteria countries method killing infection patients rather using antibiotics since these should pathogens causing treatment western access powerful around world follow steps lytic adsoprtion attachment penetration synthesis assembly release however cases animal retroviruses viral genome gains before takes machinery begin replication genes chromosome dormant point prohpage basically thing provirus mentioned earlier nothing until inducing event causes excise sometimes accidentally grabs insertion where hiding contain there couple problems caused ability enter state noted carry could include other virus would otherwise disease previous acquire genetic traits often pathogenic harmless dangerous second process inserting removing itself disrupt actually leads variety cancers humans transformation cancer characterized uncontrolled growth oncoviruses oncogenes regulation leading runaway inserts middle controls division thereby destroying function again cause easily discussed "},{"id":"cba7e2ac04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Growing Viruses","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/virology\/biology-of-viruses\/growing-viruses","description":"","text":"viruses general study virus structure function identify specific strains epidemiological purposes tracking epidemics example prepare vaccines effective means combat appropriate cells bacteriophage microbiologists growing cultures bacteria 100 years small amount phage applied petri covered provides welcome place replicate multiply cultivate plant animal similar fashion flasks culture grown liver introduced difficult endeavor technology advanced point where teach undergraduates science universities students school these easily miniature natural growth vessels sterile interior nutrients those could thrive carefully injected infect quite nicely inside while possible 39 expensive consuming volumes available limited adding needed volume production necessary relatively cheap compared other methods vaccine produced though research being based allergic problems "},{"id":"ca79799a04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Viral Diseases","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/virology\/viral-diseases","description":"","text":"great stretch imagination realize review known viral diseases would demand entire course whole series courses really viruses impact human health daily basis serious bacterial either easily least range antibiotics available treat until outbreak decades virtually arsenal against almost exclusively vaccines immune system combat infections virus metabolically active unless 39 inside infected without killing healthy uninfected cells later ability target harder bacteria bloodstream follow short selected agents "},{"id":"caa4dfcc04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Diseases 2","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/virology\/viral-diseases\/diseases-2","description":"","text":""},{"id":"caa76c4204fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Diseases 3","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/virology\/viral-diseases\/diseases-3","description":"","text":""},{"id":"caa9855404fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Diseases 4","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/virology\/viral-diseases\/diseases-4","description":"","text":""},{"id":"cbac6a2a04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Diseases 1","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/virology\/viral-diseases\/diseases-1","description":"","text":""},{"id":"c57a2c8204fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Environmental and Applied","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/environmental-and-applied","description":"","text":""},{"id":"c879ab0604fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Food Microbiology","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/environmental-and-applied\/food-microbiology","description":"","text":"humans microbes production history predates writing began agrarian civilizations likely hunter gatherer period transform common sources helped preserve spoilage bread light gasses produced during fermentation dough dairy products microbial transformations adult beverages alcoholic drinks fruits grains yeasts while certainly tuned process these foods being thousands years without clear understanding chemistry involved create variety butter buttermilk custard yogurt cream course there various forms cheese cottage swiss cheddar another hundred types flavors fermenting using really knows first places around globe started making independently formed coagulation protein casein bacteria sugars ferment lactic acidification causes curds basic material shape often times round slabs cheeses coated particular aging which ferments produce different textures lactococcus lactobacillus streptococci propionibacter because produces carbon dioxide creates pockets block appearance having holes introducing incubating temperature allows convert lactose sugar complete acidic environment inhibits growth would spoil keeping fridge extend shelf further called culture organisms still present fruit added pasteurized prevent contamination plain active completely actually considered quite healthy introduce digestive tract initially heated boiling denature proteins cooled where starter scoop contains combination streptococcus thermophilus incubated higher several hours allow thermophilic carry eventually acidity builds point strep longer function dividing becomes continues after solid refrigerated "},{"id":"c889002e04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Applied Microbiology","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/environmental-and-applied\/applied-microbiology","description":"","text":""},{"id":"c89bf44a04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Environmental Microbiology--Bioremediation","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/environmental-and-applied\/environmental-microbiology-bioremediation","description":"","text":"microbes found nearly every ecological environment planet group stunning metabolic diversity increasingly scientists taking unique metabolism certain bacteria organisms wizards breaking organic molecules their contaminating spills spill example eventually degraded microorganisms after significant damage occurred corps engineers developed methods enhance natural effect cleanup quicker bioremediation clean pollutants contaminate tanker volatile chemicals release carcinogens water supplies image shows injection where common protein injected groundwater promote growth metabolize carcinogen trichloroethlene harmless byproducts there tremendous amount research going study which harnessed environmental contaminants these involve occur naturally "},{"id":"3a6a44f05e3311e388620050569d0","title":"More Food Microbiology","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/environmental-and-applied\/more-food-microbiology","description":"","text":"alcoholic beverages microbes convert fruit grain liquid products preserved archaeology suggested humans fermenting grapes 8 000 years fermented drink barley other grains spirits potatoes carbohydrate source vodka fruits cider honey produce meade materials provide sugar which drinks while varies fermentation process basically squeezed release juice soaked water allow sprout resulting production result watery carbohydrates yeast alcohol processes widely amount takes combination sugars plays flavor product generated contain 2 3 10 12 others close 20 threshold reached beverage considered spirit possible increase content higher levels 80 90 level typically around 40 whiskey brandy examples concentration accomplished distillation since lower point quickly evaporate heated steam passes through piping where dissipated condensed mostly concentrated additional character obtained storing wooden barrels often times these charred inside create charcoal layer stored months slowly absorb chemical compounds gives unique color different woods impart flavors spent barrel makes difference distilled longer periods expensive stores 15 scotch 5 unlike still undergoing "},{"id":"a1b788a25e3311e388620050569d0","title":"Microbes and the Water Supply","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/environmental-and-applied\/microbes-and-the-water-supply","description":"","text":"readily available supply drinking water significant advances modern civilization places today thing considered something luxury clean granted while people dream discard every collected surface sources lakes rivers pumped underground either human consumption contain least levels harmful microorganisms countries where access there tested perhaps treated potable country outside system coverage private wells often drink without treatment number contaminating testing quality necessary single organism present concen finding bacteria sewage tests indicator organisms coliform rather species means sterile still moderate would requires chemicals chlorine before allowing following shows filter method screening these click image wastewater important having begin careful contaminate others easiest provide treat release directly environment disease becomes widespread untreated released streams their simple waste systems easily installed individual homes community plant septic collects allows solids settle break macromolecules undigestible remain behind storage finally discharges liquid portion drainfield amazingly filtering liquids returning table condition functioning properly correctly built maintained perfectly local larger constructed entire towns cities process similar large tanks deposited eventually removed disposal primary stage enters secondary microbes digest materials mixing aeration place accelerate tertiary remaining further added discharged source returned first "},{"id":"44d5e4be5ee511e388620050569d0","title":"Microbes in the Environment","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/environmental-and-applied\/microbes-in-the-environment","description":"","text":"bacteria ubiquitious about environment planet survive integral ecosystems around earth could exist without activity microbes maintain cycle returning plant animal matter decomposition there billions microorganims teaspoon decomposing remains basic building blocks cells allow plants which provide animals rhizosphere topsoil where roots contact fungi protozoa carry complex symbiotic interaction group provides necessary nutrients others produce sugars amino acids release factors stimulate growth these microorganisms players cycling particularly important chemicals ecosystem those carbon nitrogen cycles perhaps familiar biology classes partially discussed metabolism energy photosynthesis co2 remove o2 remaining connect other carbons organic molecules glucose create compound certain minute prosper serve source comes along grass growing field story glycolysis krebs releases making grows predator resasons either locked their tissues through process ultimately found metabolic pathways forming compounds released atmosphere ready begin again "},{"id":"5ac56e8c5f5a11e388620050569d0","title":"Microbes: Nitrogen Fixation","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/environmental-and-applied\/microbes-nitrogen-fixation","description":"","text":"other nutrient cycle relies heavily microbes centers nitrogen required organic molecules amino acids example tricky because forms unusable living cells readily incorporated oxygen carbon dioxide exists atmosphere n2 unlike those gasses cannot directly metabolism certain ability useable bacteria azotobacter clostridium species convert importantly rizobium symbiotic relationship plants legumes category plant include soybeans clover alfalfa within roots these nodules where fixing gaseous ammonia nh3 turned easily various nucleic image below shows complex organization found structure "},{"id":"7b8e56d27c4211e4bac40050569d0","title":"Aquatic Microbial Ecology","created":1558467861001,"location":"lessons\/environmental-and-applied\/aquatic-microbial-ecology","description":"","text":"considering surface earth covered water should surprising bacteria about corners aquatic environment however adjusted every known aqueous condition freshwater perfectly happily salty halophiles example temperature barrier where found waters ocean thermal vents springs provide habitat thermophilic barometric pressures microbes barophiles thrive specific living there microorganisms their basis chain other organisms present microscopic phytoplankton zooplankton primary small fishes which larger animals without these simple could easily exist lakes streams oceans world disruptions delicate ecosystems significant impacts nutrients suddenly added system either through runoff fertilizers changes currents bring rapid reproduction certain disrupt local ecosystem under conditions called eutrophication blooms cyanobacteria quickly remove oxygen forms sudden growth algae dinoflagellates appears produce toxin deadly humans "},{"id":"c53dbae004fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Resources","created":1558467861001,"location":"resources","description":"","text":""},{"id":"c578092004fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Mycobacteria","created":1558467861001,"location":"resources\/mycobacteria","description":"","text":"mycobacteria includes clinically significant disease causing organisms causes tuberculosis other leprosy group bacteria unique structure containing lipid content differentiated stain differential staining technique identify lipids difficult special procedure these characterized growth generation times 5 10 12 hours compared minutes culturing weeks making rapid identification problem "},{"id":"5f78c8c13b9b433eafc67687be2af","title":"Mycobacterium: Tuberculosis","created":1558467861001,"location":"resources\/mycobacteria\/mycobacterium-tuberculosis","description":"","text":""},{"id":"1d00133571c941a6af56f5e49c2a3","title":"Mycobacterium: Leprosy","created":1558467861001,"location":"resources\/mycobacteria\/mycobacterium-leprosy","description":"","text":""},{"id":"c58677da04fa11e388620050569d0","title":"Clostridium","created":1558467861001,"location":"resources\/clostridium","description":"","text":"section being rewritten tuned details "},{"id":"df4a82fa8da4425c999449c990578","title":"ANGEL","created":1558467861001,"location":"resources\/angel","description":"","text":""}]