| name | contributors | filename | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Forth |
|
learnforth.fs |
Forth was created by Charles H. Moore in the 70s. It is an imperative, stack-based language and programming environment, being used in projects such as Open Firmware. It's also used by NASA.
Note: This article focuses predominantly on the Gforth implementation of Forth, but most of what is written here should work elsewhere.
\ This is a comment
( This is also a comment but it's only used when defining words )
\ --------------------------------- Precursor ----------------------------------
\ All programming in Forth is done by manipulating the parameter stack (more
\ commonly just referred to as "the stack").
5 2 3 56 76 23 65 \ ok
\ Those numbers get added to the stack, from left to right.
.s \ <7> 5 2 3 56 76 23 65 ok
\ In Forth, everything is either a word or a number.
\ ------------------------------ Basic Arithmetic ------------------------------
\ Arithmetic (in fact most words requiring data) works by manipulating data on
\ the stack.
5 4 + \ ok
\ `.` pops the top result from the stack:
. \ 9 ok
\ More examples of arithmetic:
6 7 * . \ 42 ok
1360 23 - . \ 1337 ok
12 12 / . \ 1 ok
13 2 mod . \ 1 ok
99 negate . \ -99 ok
-99 abs . \ 99 ok
52 23 max . \ 52 ok
52 23 min . \ 23 ok
\ ----------------------------- Stack Manipulation -----------------------------
\ Naturally, as we work with the stack, we'll want some useful methods:
3 dup - \ duplicate the top item (1st now equals 2nd): 3 - 3
2 5 swap / \ swap the top with the second element: 5 / 2
6 4 5 rot .s \ rotate the top 3 elements: 4 5 6
4 0 drop 2 / \ remove the top item (don't print to screen): 4 / 2
1 2 3 nip .s \ remove the second item (similar to drop): 1 3
\ ---------------------- More Advanced Stack Manipulation ----------------------
1 2 3 4 tuck \ duplicate the top item below the second slot: 1 2 4 3 4 ok
1 2 3 4 over \ duplicate the second item to the top: 1 2 3 4 3 ok
1 2 3 4 2 roll \ *move* the item at that position to the top: 1 3 4 2 ok
1 2 3 4 2 pick \ *duplicate* the item at that position to the top: 1 2 3 4 2 ok
\ When referring to stack indexes, they are zero-based.
\ ------------------------------ Creating Words --------------------------------
\ The `:` word sets Forth into compile mode until it sees the `;` word.
: square ( n -- n ) dup * ; \ ok
5 square . \ 25 ok
\ We can view what a word does too:
see square \ : square dup * ; ok
\ -------------------------------- Conditionals --------------------------------
\ -1 == true, 0 == false. However, any non-zero value is usually treated as
\ being true:
42 42 = \ -1 ok
12 53 = \ 0 ok
\ `if` is a compile-only word. `if` <stuff to do> `then` <rest of program>.
: ?>64 ( n -- n ) dup 64 > if ." Greater than 64!" then ; \ ok
100 ?>64 \ Greater than 64! ok
\ Else:
: ?>64 ( n -- n ) dup 64 > if ." Greater than 64!" else ." Less than 64!" then ;
100 ?>64 \ Greater than 64! ok
20 ?>64 \ Less than 64! ok
\ ------------------------------------ Loops -----------------------------------
\ `?do` is also a compile-only word.
: myloop ( -- ) 5 0 ?do cr ." Hello!" loop ; \ ok
myloop
\ Hello!
\ Hello!
\ Hello!
\ Hello!
\ Hello! ok
\ `?do` expects two numbers on the stack: the end number (exclusive) and the
\ start number (inclusive).
\ We can get the value of the index as we loop with `i`:
: one-to-12 ( -- ) 12 0 do i . loop ; \ ok
one-to-12 \ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 ok
\ `do` works similarly, except if start and end are exactly the same it will
\ loop forever (until arithmetic underflow).
: loop-forever 1 1 do i square . loop ; \ ok
loop-forever \ 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 100 ...
\ Change the "step" with `+loop`:
: threes ( n n -- ) ?do i . 3 +loop ; \ ok
15 0 threes \ 0 3 6 9 12 ok
\ Indefinite loops with `begin` <stuff to do> <flag> `until`:
: death ( -- ) begin ." Are we there yet?" 0 until ; \ ok
\ ---------------------------- Variables and Memory ----------------------------
\ Use `variable` to declare `age` to be a variable.
variable age \ ok
\ Then we write 21 to age with the word `!`.
21 age ! \ ok
\ Finally we can print our variable using the "read" word `@`, which adds the
\ value to the stack, or use `?` that reads and prints it in one go.
age @ . \ 21 ok
age ? \ 21 ok
\ Constants are quite similar, except we don't bother with memory addresses:
100 constant WATER-BOILING-POINT \ ok
WATER-BOILING-POINT . \ 100 ok
\ ----------------------------------- Arrays -----------------------------------
\ Creating arrays is similar to variables, except we need to allocate more
\ memory to them.
\ You can use `2 cells allot` to create an array that's 3 cells long:
variable mynumbers 2 cells allot \ ok
\ Initialize all the values to 0
mynumbers 3 cells erase \ ok
\ Alternatively we could use `fill`:
mynumbers 3 cells 0 fill
\ or we can just skip all the above and initialize with specific values:
create mynumbers 64 , 9001 , 1337 , \ ok (the last `,` is important!)
\ ...which is equivalent to:
\ Manually writing values to each index:
64 mynumbers 0 cells + ! \ ok
9001 mynumbers 1 cells + ! \ ok
1337 mynumbers 2 cells + ! \ ok
\ Reading values at certain array indexes:
0 cells mynumbers + ? \ 64 ok
1 cells mynumbers + ? \ 9001 ok
\ We can simplify it a little by making a helper word for manipulating arrays:
: of-arr ( n n -- n ) cells + ; \ ok
mynumbers 2 of-arr ? \ 1337 ok
\ Which we can use for writing too:
20 mynumbers 1 of-arr ! \ ok
mynumbers 1 of-arr ? \ 20 ok
\ ------------------------------ The Return Stack ------------------------------
\ The return stack is used to the hold pointers to things when words are
\ executing other words, e.g. loops.
\ We've already seen one use of it: `i`, which duplicates the top of the return
\ stack. `i` is equivalent to `r@`.
: myloop ( -- ) 5 0 do r@ . loop ; \ ok
\ As well as reading, we can add to the return stack and remove from it:
5 6 4 >r swap r> .s \ 6 5 4 ok
\ NOTE: Because Forth uses the return stack for word pointers, `>r` should
\ always be followed by `r>`.
\ ------------------------- Floating Point Operations --------------------------
\ Most Forths tend to eschew the use of floating point operations.
8.3e 0.8e f+ f. \ 9.1 ok
\ Usually we simply prepend words with 'f' when dealing with floats:
variable myfloatingvar \ ok
4.4e myfloatingvar f! \ ok
myfloatingvar f@ f. \ 4.4 ok
\ --------------------------------- Final Notes --------------------------------
\ Typing a non-existent word will empty the stack. However, there's also a word
\ specifically for that:
clearstack
\ Clear the screen:
page
\ Loading Forth files:
\ s" forthfile.fs" included
\ You can list every word that's in Forth's dictionary (but it's a huge list!):
\ words
\ Exiting Gforth:
\ bye