From 9f45104c510ba2ec08c3b76c3bd42eca0264df8a Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Kelvin Nishikawa <kelnishi@gmail.com>
Date: Tue, 26 Nov 2024 15:23:35 -0800
Subject: [PATCH 1/4] Fixing ComputePointerPath

---
 Wacs.Core/Runtime/ExecContext.cs | 40 ++++++++++++++++----------------
 Wacs.Core/Runtime/Frame.cs       | 14 +++++++++++
 2 files changed, 34 insertions(+), 20 deletions(-)

diff --git a/Wacs.Core/Runtime/ExecContext.cs b/Wacs.Core/Runtime/ExecContext.cs
index 8c71764..25e5530 100644
--- a/Wacs.Core/Runtime/ExecContext.cs
+++ b/Wacs.Core/Runtime/ExecContext.cs
@@ -334,26 +334,26 @@ public void FunctionReturn()
             Stack<(string, int)> ascent = new();
             int idx = _sequenceIndex;
             
-            // foreach (var label in Frame.Labels)
-            // {
-            //     var pointer = (label.Instruction.GetMnemonic(), idx);
-            //     ascent.Push(pointer);
-            //
-            //     idx = label.ContinuationAddress.Index;
-            //     
-            //     switch ((OpCode)label.Instruction)
-            //     {
-            //         case OpCode.If: ascent.Push(("InstIf", 0));
-            //             break;
-            //         case OpCode.Else: ascent.Push(("InstElse", 1));
-            //             break;
-            //         case OpCode.Block: ascent.Push(("InstBlock", 0));
-            //             break;
-            //         case OpCode.Loop: ascent.Push(("InstLoop", 0));
-            //             break;
-            //     }
-            //     
-            // }
+            foreach (var label in Frame.EnumerateLabels())
+            {
+                var pointer = (label.Instruction.GetMnemonic(), idx);
+                ascent.Push(pointer);
+            
+                idx = label.ContinuationAddress.Index;
+                
+                switch ((OpCode)label.Instruction)
+                {
+                    case OpCode.If: ascent.Push(("InstIf", 0));
+                        break;
+                    case OpCode.Else: ascent.Push(("InstElse", 1));
+                        break;
+                    case OpCode.Block: ascent.Push(("InstBlock", 0));
+                        break;
+                    case OpCode.Loop: ascent.Push(("InstLoop", 0));
+                        break;
+                }
+                
+            }
             
             ascent.Push(("Function", (int)Frame.Index.Value));
 
diff --git a/Wacs.Core/Runtime/Frame.cs b/Wacs.Core/Runtime/Frame.cs
index cca966f..46d0314 100644
--- a/Wacs.Core/Runtime/Frame.cs
+++ b/Wacs.Core/Runtime/Frame.cs
@@ -15,6 +15,8 @@
 //  */
 
 using System.Buffers;
+using System.Collections;
+using System.Collections.Generic;
 using System.IO;
 using Wacs.Core.Instructions;
 using Wacs.Core.OpCodes;
@@ -125,5 +127,17 @@ public InstructionPointer PopLabels(int idx)
 
             return oldLabel.Label.ContinuationAddress;
         }
+
+        public IEnumerable<Label> EnumerateLabels()
+        {
+            int height = LabelCount;
+            var current = TopLabel;
+            while (height > 0)
+            {
+                yield return current.Label;
+                height -= 1;
+                current = current.EnclosingBlock;
+            }
+        }
     }
 }
\ No newline at end of file

From 88bb8aa99e1a486ef62284d650498c158e6047aa Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Kelvin Nishikawa <kelnishi@gmail.com>
Date: Tue, 26 Nov 2024 17:46:08 -0800
Subject: [PATCH 2/4] Splitting WasmRuntime into smaller files

---
 Wacs.Core/Runtime/WasmRuntime.cs              | 1058 -----------------
 Wacs.Core/Runtime/WasmRuntimeBinding.cs       |  218 ++++
 Wacs.Core/Runtime/WasmRuntimeExecution.cs     |  408 +++++++
 Wacs.Core/Runtime/WasmRuntimeInstantiation.cs |  493 ++++++++
 4 files changed, 1119 insertions(+), 1058 deletions(-)
 delete mode 100644 Wacs.Core/Runtime/WasmRuntime.cs
 create mode 100644 Wacs.Core/Runtime/WasmRuntimeBinding.cs
 create mode 100644 Wacs.Core/Runtime/WasmRuntimeExecution.cs
 create mode 100644 Wacs.Core/Runtime/WasmRuntimeInstantiation.cs

diff --git a/Wacs.Core/Runtime/WasmRuntime.cs b/Wacs.Core/Runtime/WasmRuntime.cs
deleted file mode 100644
index 568955e..0000000
--- a/Wacs.Core/Runtime/WasmRuntime.cs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,1058 +0,0 @@
-// /*
-//  * Copyright 2024 Kelvin Nishikawa
-//  *
-//  * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
-//  * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
-//  * You may obtain a copy of the License at
-//  *
-//  *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
-//  *
-//  * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
-//  * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
-//  * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
-//  * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
-//  * limitations under the License.
-//  */
-
-using System;
-using System.Collections.Generic;
-using System.IO;
-using System.Linq;
-using System.Reflection;
-using FluentValidation;
-using Wacs.Core.Instructions;
-using Wacs.Core.Instructions.Numeric;
-using Wacs.Core.OpCodes;
-using Wacs.Core.Runtime.Exceptions;
-using Wacs.Core.Runtime.Types;
-using Wacs.Core.Types;
-using Wacs.Core.Utilities;
-using Wacs.Core.WASIp1;
-
-// using System.Diagnostics.CodeAnalysis;
-
-namespace Wacs.Core.Runtime
-{
-    public partial class WasmRuntime
-    {
-        private static readonly MethodInfo GenericFuncsInvoke = typeof(Delegates.GenericFuncs).GetMethod("Invoke")!;
-        private readonly Dictionary<(string module, string entity), IAddress?> _entityBindings = new();
-
-        private readonly List<ModuleInstance> _moduleInstances = new();
-        private readonly Dictionary<string, ModuleInstance> _registeredModules = new();
-
-        private readonly ExecContext Context;
-
-        private readonly Store Store;
-
-        private IInstruction? lastInstruction = null;
-
-        public WasmRuntime(RuntimeAttributes? attributes = null)
-        {
-            Store = new Store();
-            Context = new ExecContext(Store, attributes);
-        }
-
-        public IInstructionFactory InstructionFactory => Context.InstructionFactory;
-
-        public void RegisterModule(string moduleName, ModuleInstance moduleInstance)
-        {
-            _registeredModules[moduleName] = moduleInstance;
-
-            //Bind exports
-            foreach (var export in moduleInstance.Exports)
-            {
-                _entityBindings[(moduleName, export.Name)] = export.Value switch
-                {
-                    ExternalValue.Function func => func.Address,
-                    ExternalValue.Table table => table.Address,
-                    ExternalValue.Memory mem => mem.Address,
-                    ExternalValue.Global global => global.Address,
-                    _ => throw new InvalidDataException($"Corrupted Export Instance in {moduleName} ({export.Name})"),
-                };
-            }
-        }
-
-        public ModuleInstance GetModule(string? moduleName)
-        {
-            if (moduleName == null)
-                return _moduleInstances.Last();
-            
-            if (_registeredModules.TryGetValue(moduleName, out var moduleInstance))
-            {
-                return moduleInstance;
-            }
-            
-            var anonInstance = _moduleInstances.FirstOrDefault(m => m.Name == moduleName);
-            if (anonInstance != null)
-                return anonInstance;
-            
-            throw new Exception($"Module '{moduleName}' not found.");
-        }
-
-        public bool TryGetExportedFunction(string entity, out FuncAddr addr)
-        {
-            var exports = _moduleInstances.SelectMany(modInst => modInst.Exports)
-                .Where(export => export.Name == entity)
-                .Select(export => export.Value)
-                .Cast<ExternalValue.Function>()
-                .Select(func => func.Address);
-            addr = exports.LastOrDefault();
-            return addr != null;
-        }
-
-        public bool TryGetExportedFunction((string module, string entity) id, out FuncAddr addr)
-        {
-            try
-            {
-                addr = GetExportedFunction(id);
-                return true;
-            }
-            catch (UnboundEntityException)
-            {
-                var exports = _moduleInstances
-                    .Where(modInst => modInst.Name == id.module)
-                    .SelectMany(modInst => modInst.Exports)
-                    .Where(export => export.Name == id.entity)
-                    .Select(export => export.Value)
-                    .Cast<ExternalValue.Function>()
-                    .Select(func => func.Address)
-                    .ToList();
-
-                if (exports.Count > 0)
-                {
-                    addr = exports.Last();
-                    return true;
-                }
-                addr = FuncAddr.Null;
-                return false;
-            }
-        }
-
-        public FuncAddr GetExportedFunction((string module, string entity) id)
-        {
-            if (GetBoundEntity(id) is FuncAddr addr)
-            {
-                return addr;
-            }
-
-            throw new UnboundEntityException($"Function {id} was not exported from any modules currently loaded in the runtime.");
-        }
-
-        private IAddress? GetBoundEntity((string module, string entity) id) =>
-            _entityBindings.GetValueOrDefault(id);
-
-        // [RequiresUnreferencedCode("Uses reflection to match parameters for binding")]
-        public void BindHostFunction<TDelegate>((string module, string entity) id, TDelegate func)
-            where TDelegate : Delegate
-        {
-            var funcType = func.GetType();
-            var parameters = funcType.GetMethod("Invoke")?.GetParameters();
-            var paramTypes = parameters?
-                                 .Where(p=> !p.Attributes.HasFlag(ParameterAttributes.Out))
-                                 .Select(p => p.ParameterType)
-                                 .ToArray()
-                             ?? Array.Empty<Type>();
-            var outTypes = parameters?
-                               .Where(p=> p.Attributes.HasFlag(ParameterAttributes.Out))
-                               .Select(p => p.ParameterType)
-                               .ToArray()
-                           ?? Array.Empty<Type>();
-            
-            var returnTypeInfo = funcType.GetMethod("Invoke")?.ReturnType;
-            
-            var paramValTypes = new ResultType(paramTypes);
-            var outValTypes = outTypes.Select(t => ValTypeUtilities.UnpackRef(t)).ToArray();
-            var returnType = returnTypeInfo?.ToValType() ?? ValType.Nil;
-
-            if (returnType != ValType.Nil)
-            {
-                outValTypes = new ValType[] { returnType }.Concat(outValTypes).ToArray();
-            }
-            var returnValType = new ResultType(outValTypes);
-            
-            for (int i = paramValTypes.Types.Length - 1; i >= 0; --i)
-            {
-                if (paramValTypes.Types[i] == ValType.ExecContext)
-                {
-                    if (i > 0)
-                    {
-                        throw new ArgumentException(
-                            "ExecContext may only be the first parameter of a bound host function.");
-                    }
-                    //If it's the first, just unshift it.
-                    paramValTypes = new ResultType(paramValTypes.Types.Skip(1).ToArray());
-                }
-            }
-
-            Store.OpenTransaction();
-            var type = new FunctionType(paramValTypes, returnValType);
-            var funcAddr = AllocateHostFunc(Store, id, type, funcType, func);
-            Store.CommitTransaction();
-            _entityBindings[id] = funcAddr;
-        }
-
-        public string GetFunctionName(FuncAddr funcAddr)
-        {
-            if (!Context.Store.Contains(funcAddr))
-                throw new ArgumentException($"Runtime did not contain function address.");
-            var funcInst = Context.Store[funcAddr];
-            return funcInst.Id;
-        }
-
-        public FunctionType GetFunctionType(FuncAddr funcAddr)
-        {
-            if (!Context.Store.Contains(funcAddr))
-                throw new ArgumentException($"Runtime did not contain function address.");
-            var funcInst = Context.Store[funcAddr];
-            return funcInst.Type;
-        }
-
-        private Delegates.GenericFuncs CreateInvoker(FuncAddr funcAddr, InvokerOptions options)
-        {
-            return GenericDelegate;
-            Value[] GenericDelegate(params object[] args)
-            {
-                var funcInst = Context.Store[funcAddr];
-                var funcType = funcInst.Type;
-                
-                Context.OpStack.PushScalars(funcType.ParameterTypes, args);
-
-                if (options.CollectStats != StatsDetail.None)
-                {
-                    Context.ResetStats();
-                    Context.InstructionTimer.Reset();
-                }
-
-                Context.ProcessTimer.Restart();
-
-                Context.Invoke(funcAddr);
-
-                Context.steps = 0;
-                long highwatermark = 0;
-                bool fastPath = options.UseFastPath();
-
-                try
-                {
-                    if (fastPath)
-                    {
-                        int comp = 0;
-                        do
-                        {
-                            comp = ProcessThread();
-                            Context.steps += comp;
-                            if (options.GasLimit > 0)
-                            {
-                                if (Context.steps >= options.GasLimit)
-                                {
-                                    throw new InsufficientGasException(
-                                        $"Invocation ran out of gas (limit:{options.GasLimit}).");
-                                }
-                            }
-                        } while (comp > 0);
-                    }
-                    else
-                    {
-                        long comp = 0;
-                        do
-                        {
-                            comp = ProcessThreadWithOptions(options);
-                            Context.steps += comp;
-
-                            if (options.GasLimit > 0)
-                            {
-                                if (Context.steps >= options.GasLimit)
-                                {
-                                    throw new InsufficientGasException(
-                                        $"Invocation ran out of gas (limit:{options.GasLimit}).");
-                                }
-                            }
-
-                            if (options.LogProgressEvery > 0)
-                            {
-                                highwatermark += comp;
-                                if (highwatermark >= options.LogProgressEvery)
-                                {
-                                    highwatermark -= options.LogProgressEvery;
-                                    Console.Error.Write('.');
-                                }
-                            }
-                        } while (comp > 0);
-                    }
-                }
-                catch (TrapException exc)
-                {
-                    Context.ProcessTimer.Stop();
-                    Context.InstructionTimer.Stop();
-                    if (options.LogProgressEvery > 0)
-                        Console.Error.WriteLine();
-                    if (options.CollectStats != StatsDetail.None)
-                        PrintStats(options);
-                    if (options.LogGas)
-                        Console.Error.WriteLine($"Process used {Context.steps} gas. {Context.ProcessTimer.Elapsed}");
-
-                    if (options.CalculateLineNumbers)
-                    {
-                        var ptr = Context.ComputePointerPath();
-                        var path = string.Join(".", ptr.Select(t => $"{t.Item1.Capitalize()}[{t.Item2}]"));
-                        (int line, string instruction) = Context.Frame.Module.Repr.CalculateLine(path);
-
-                        throw new TrapException(exc.Message + $":line {line} instruction #{Context.steps}\n{path}");
-                    }
-
-                    //Flush the stack before throwing...
-                    Context.FlushCallStack();
-                    throw;
-                }
-                catch (SignalException exc)
-                {
-                    Context.ProcessTimer.Stop();
-                    Context.InstructionTimer.Stop();
-                    if (options.LogProgressEvery > 0)
-                        Console.Error.WriteLine();
-                    if (options.CollectStats != StatsDetail.None)
-                        PrintStats(options);
-                    if (options.LogGas)
-                        Console.Error.WriteLine($"Process used {Context.steps} gas. {Context.ProcessTimer.Elapsed}");
-
-                    string message = exc.Message;
-                    if (options.CalculateLineNumbers)
-                    {
-                        var ptr = Context.ComputePointerPath();
-                        var path = string.Join(".", ptr.Select(t => $"{t.Item1.Capitalize()}[{t.Item2}]"));
-                        (int line, string instruction) = Context.Frame.Module.Repr.CalculateLine(path);
-                        message = exc.Message + $":line {line} instruction #{Context.steps}\n{path}";
-                    }
-
-                    //Flush the stack before throwing...
-                    Context.FlushCallStack();
-
-                    var exType = exc.GetType();
-                    var ctr = exType.GetConstructor(new Type[] { typeof(int), typeof(string) });
-                    throw ctr?.Invoke(new object[] { exc.Signal, message }) as Exception ?? exc;
-                }
-                catch (WasmRuntimeException)
-                {
-                    //Maybe Log?
-                    Context.FlushCallStack();
-                    throw;
-                }
-                
-                Context.ProcessTimer.Stop();
-                Context.InstructionTimer.Stop();
-                if (options.LogProgressEvery > 0) Console.Error.WriteLine("done.");
-                if (options.CollectStats != StatsDetail.None) PrintStats(options);
-                if (options.LogGas) Console.Error.WriteLine($"Process used {Context.steps} gas. {Context.ProcessTimer.Elapsed}");
-
-                Value[] results = new Value[funcType.ResultType.Arity];
-                var span = results.AsSpan();
-                Context.OpStack.PopScalars(funcType.ResultType, span);
-
-                return results;
-            }
-        }
-
-        public TDelegate CreateInvoker<TDelegate>(FuncAddr funcAddr, InvokerOptions? options = default)
-            where TDelegate : Delegate
-        {
-            options ??= new InvokerOptions();
-            var funcInst = Context.Store[funcAddr];
-            var funcType = funcInst.Type;
-
-            if (funcType.ResultType.Types.Length > 1)
-                throw new WasmRuntimeException("Binding multiple return values from wasm are not yet supported.");
-            
-            Delegates.ValidateFunctionTypeCompatibility(funcType, typeof(TDelegate));
-            var inner = CreateInvoker(funcAddr, options);
-            var genericDelegate = Delegates.AnonymousFunctionFromType(funcType, args =>
-            {
-                try
-                {
-                    Value[] results = funcType.ParameterTypes.Arity == 0
-                        ? inner()
-                        : (Value[])GenericFuncsInvoke.Invoke(inner, args);
-                    if (funcType.ResultType.Types.Length == 1)
-                        return results[0];
-                    return results;
-                }
-                catch (TargetInvocationException exc)
-                { //Propagate out any exceptions
-                    throw exc.InnerException;
-                }
-            });
-            
-            return (TDelegate)Delegates.CreateTypedDelegate(genericDelegate, typeof(TDelegate));
-        }
-
-        //No type checking, but you can get multiple return values
-        public Delegates.StackFunc CreateStackInvoker(FuncAddr funcAddr, InvokerOptions? options = default)
-        {
-            options ??= new InvokerOptions();
-            var invoker = CreateInvoker(funcAddr, options);
-            var funcInst = Context.Store[funcAddr];
-            var funcType = funcInst.Type;
-            object[] p = new object[funcType.ParameterTypes.Arity];
-            
-            return valueParams =>
-            {
-                for (int i = 0; i < funcType.ParameterTypes.Arity; ++i)
-                    p[i] = valueParams[i];
-
-                return invoker(p);
-            };
-        }
-
-        public int ProcessThread()
-        {
-            var inst = Context.Next();
-            if (inst == null)
-                return 0;
-            
-            return inst.Execute(Context);
-        }
-
-        public long ProcessThreadWithOptions(InvokerOptions options)
-        {
-            var inst = Context.Next();
-            if (inst == null)
-                return 0;
-            
-            //Trace execution
-            if (options.LogInstructionExecution != InstructionLogging.None)
-            {
-                LogPreInstruction(options, inst);
-            }
-
-            long steps = 0;
-            if (options.CollectStats == StatsDetail.Instruction)
-            {
-                Context.InstructionTimer.Restart();
-                steps += inst.Execute(Context);
-                Context.InstructionTimer.Stop();
-
-                var st = Context.Stats[(ushort)inst.Op];
-                st.count += steps;
-                st.duration += Context.InstructionTimer.ElapsedTicks;
-                Context.Stats[(ushort)inst.Op] = st;
-            }
-            else
-            {
-                Context.InstructionTimer.Start();
-                steps += inst.Execute(Context);
-                Context.InstructionTimer.Stop();
-            }
-
-            if (options.LogInstructionExecution.Has(InstructionLogging.Computes))
-            {
-                LogPostInstruction(options, inst);
-            }
-            
-            lastInstruction = inst;
-            return steps;
-        }
-
-        private void LogPreInstruction(InvokerOptions options, IInstruction inst)
-        {
-            switch ((OpCode)inst.Op)
-            {
-                //Handle these post
-                case var _ when IInstruction.IsNumeric(inst): break;
-                case var _ when IInstruction.IsVar(inst): break;
-                case var _ when IInstruction.IsLoad(inst): break;
-                
-                case OpCode.Call when options.LogInstructionExecution.Has(InstructionLogging.Binds) && IInstruction.IsBound(Context, inst):
-                case OpCode.CallIndirect when options.LogInstructionExecution.Has(InstructionLogging.Binds) && IInstruction.IsBound(Context, inst):
-                // case OpCode.CallRef when options.LogInstructionExecution.Has(InstructionLogging.Binds) && IInstruction.IsBound(Context, inst):
-                
-                case OpCode.Call when options.LogInstructionExecution.Has(InstructionLogging.Calls):
-                case OpCode.CallIndirect when options.LogInstructionExecution.Has(InstructionLogging.Calls):
-                // case OpCode.CallRef when options.LogInstructionExecution.Has(InstructionLogging.Calls):
-                case OpCode.Return when options.LogInstructionExecution.Has(InstructionLogging.Calls):
-                case OpCode.ReturnCallIndirect when options.LogInstructionExecution.Has(InstructionLogging.Calls):
-                case OpCode.ReturnCall when options.LogInstructionExecution.Has(InstructionLogging.Calls):
-                case OpCode.End when options.LogInstructionExecution.Has(InstructionLogging.Calls) && Context.GetEndFor() == OpCode.Func:
-                        
-                case OpCode.Block when options.LogInstructionExecution.Has(InstructionLogging.Blocks):
-                case OpCode.Loop when options.LogInstructionExecution.Has(InstructionLogging.Blocks):
-                case OpCode.If when options.LogInstructionExecution.Has(InstructionLogging.Blocks):
-                case OpCode.Else when options.LogInstructionExecution.Has(InstructionLogging.Blocks):
-                case OpCode.End when options.LogInstructionExecution.Has(InstructionLogging.Blocks) && Context.GetEndFor() == OpCode.Block:
-                            
-                case OpCode.Br when options.LogInstructionExecution.Has(InstructionLogging.Branches):
-                case OpCode.BrIf when options.LogInstructionExecution.Has(InstructionLogging.Branches):
-                case OpCode.BrTable when options.LogInstructionExecution.Has(InstructionLogging.Branches):
-                
-                case var _ when IInstruction.IsBranch(lastInstruction) && options.LogInstructionExecution.Has(InstructionLogging.Branches):
-                case var _ when options.LogInstructionExecution.Has(InstructionLogging.Computes):
-                    string location = "";
-                    if (options.CalculateLineNumbers)
-                    {
-                        var ptr = Context.ComputePointerPath();
-                        var path = string.Join(".", ptr.Select(t => $"{t.Item1.Capitalize()}[{t.Item2}]"));
-                        (int line, string instruction) = Context.Frame.Module.Repr.CalculateLine(path);
-                        location = $"line {line.ToString().PadLeft(7,' ')}";
-                        if (options.ShowPath)
-                            location += $":{path}";
-                            
-                        var log = $"{location}: {inst.RenderText(Context)}".PadRight(40, ' ');
-                        Console.Error.WriteLine(log);
-                    }
-                    else
-                    {
-                        var log = $"Instruction: {inst.RenderText(Context)}".PadRight(40, ' ') + location;
-                        Console.Error.WriteLine(log);
-                    }
-                    break; 
-            }
-        }
-
-        private void LogPostInstruction(InvokerOptions options, IInstruction inst)
-        {
-            if ((options.LogInstructionExecution & InstructionLogging.Computes) == 0)
-                return;
-            
-            switch ((OpCode)inst.Op)
-            {
-                case var _ when IInstruction.IsLoad(inst):
-                case var _ when IInstruction.IsNumeric(inst): 
-                case var _ when IInstruction.IsVar(inst):
-                    string location = "";
-                    if (options.CalculateLineNumbers)
-                    {
-                        var ptr = Context.ComputePointerPath();
-                        var path = string.Join(".", ptr.Select(t => $"{t.Item1.Capitalize()}[{t.Item2}]"));
-                        (int line, string instruction) = Context.Frame.Module.Repr.CalculateLine(path);
-                        location = $"line {line.ToString().PadLeft(7,' ')}";
-                        if (options.ShowPath)
-                            location += $":{path}";
-                            
-                        var log = $"{location}: {inst.RenderText(Context)}".PadRight(40, ' ');
-                        Console.Error.WriteLine(log);
-                    }
-                    else
-                    {
-                        var log = $"Instruction: {inst.RenderText(Context)}".PadRight(40, ' ') + location;
-                        Console.Error.WriteLine(log);
-                    }
-                    break; 
-                default: return;
-            }
-        }
-
-        private void PrintStats(InvokerOptions options)
-        {
-            long procTicks = Context.ProcessTimer.ElapsedTicks; //ns
-            long totalExecs = options.CollectStats == StatsDetail.Instruction
-                ? Context.Stats.Values.Sum(dc => dc.count)
-                : Context.steps;
-            long execTicks = options.CollectStats == StatsDetail.Instruction
-                ? Context.Stats.Values.Sum(dc => dc.duration)
-                : Context.InstructionTimer.ElapsedTicks;
-            long overheadTicks = procTicks - execTicks;
-
-            TimeSpan totalTime = new TimeSpan(procTicks/100); //100ns
-            TimeSpan execTime = new TimeSpan(execTicks/100);
-            TimeSpan overheadTime = new TimeSpan(overheadTicks/100);
-            double overheadPercent =  100.0 * overheadTicks / procTicks;
-            double execPercent = 100.0 * execTicks / procTicks;
-            string overheadLabel = $"({overheadPercent:#0.###}%) {overheadTime:g}";
-            
-            string totalLabel = "    total duration";
-            string totalInst = $"{totalExecs}";
-            string totalPercent = $"{execPercent:#0.###}%t".PadLeft(8,' ');
-            string avgTime = $"{execTime.TotalMilliseconds * 1000000.0/totalExecs:#0.###}ns/i";
-            double instPerSec = totalExecs * 1000.0 / totalTime.TotalMilliseconds;
-            string velocity = $"{instPerSec.SiSuffix("0.###")}i/s";
-            Console.Error.WriteLine($"Execution Stats:");
-            Console.Error.WriteLine($"{totalLabel}: {totalInst}| ({totalPercent}) {execTime.TotalSeconds:#0.###}s {avgTime} {velocity} overhead:{overheadLabel} total proctime:{totalTime.TotalSeconds:#0.###}s");
-            var orderedStats = Context.Stats
-                .Where(bdc => bdc.Value.count != 0)
-                .OrderBy(bdc => -bdc.Value.count);
-            
-            foreach (var (opcode, st) in orderedStats)
-            {
-                string label = $"{((ByteCode)opcode).GetMnemonic()}".PadLeft(totalLabel.Length, ' ');
-                TimeSpan instTime = new TimeSpan(st.duration/100); //100ns
-                double percent = 100.0 * st.duration / execTicks;
-                string execsLabel = $"{st.count}".PadLeft(totalInst.Length, ' ');
-                string percentLabel = $"{percent:#0.###}%e".PadLeft(8,' ');
-                string instAve = $"{instTime.TotalMilliseconds * 1000000.0/st.count:#0.#}ns/i";
-                Console.Error.WriteLine($"{label}: {execsLabel}| ({percentLabel}) {instTime.TotalMilliseconds:#0.000}ms {instAve}");
-            }
-        }
-
-        public MemoryInstance BindHostMemory((string module, string entity) id, MemoryType memType)
-        {
-            Store.OpenTransaction();
-            var memAddr = AllocateMemory(Store, memType);
-            _entityBindings[id] = memAddr;
-            Store.CommitTransaction();
-            return Store[memAddr];
-        }
-
-        public GlobalInstance BindHostGlobal((string module, string entity) id, GlobalType globalType, Value val)
-        {
-            if (globalType.ContentType != val.Type)
-                throw new ArgumentException(
-                    $"Global {globalType.ContentType} must be defined with matching type value {val}");
-            
-            Store.OpenTransaction();
-            var globAddr = AllocateGlobal(Store, globalType, val);
-            _entityBindings[id] = globAddr;
-            Store.CommitTransaction();
-            return Store[globAddr];
-        }
-
-        public TableInstance BindHostTable((string module, string entity) id, TableType tableType, Value val)
-        {
-            if (tableType.ElementType.StackType() != val.Type)
-                throw new ArgumentException(
-                    $"Table {tableType.ElementType} must be defined with matching element type value {val}");
-            
-            Store.OpenTransaction();
-            var tableAddr = AllocateTable(Store, tableType, val);
-            _entityBindings[id] = tableAddr;
-            Store.CommitTransaction();
-            return Store[tableAddr];
-        }
-
-        /// <summary>
-        /// @Spec 4.5.3.10. Modules Allocation
-        /// *We also evaluate globals and elements here, per instantiation
-        /// </summary>
-        private ModuleInstance AllocateModule(Module module)
-        {
-            //20. Include Types from module
-            var moduleInstance = new ModuleInstance(module);
-
-            //Resolve Imports
-            foreach (var import in module.Imports)
-            {
-                var entityId = (module: import.ModuleName, entity: import.Name);
-                switch (import.Desc)
-                {
-                    case Module.ImportDesc.FuncDesc funcDesc:
-                        // @Spec 4.5.3.2. @note: Host Functions must be bound to the environment prior to module instantiation!
-                        var funcSig = moduleInstance.Types[funcDesc.TypeIndex];
-                        if (GetBoundEntity(entityId) is not FuncAddr funcAddr)
-                            throw new NotSupportedException(
-                                $"The imported Function was not provided by the environment: {entityId.module}.{entityId.entity} {funcSig.ToNotation()}");
-                        var functionInstance = Store[funcAddr];
-                        if (functionInstance is FunctionInstance wasmFunc)
-                        {
-                            wasmFunc.SetName(entityId.entity);
-                        }
-                        if (!functionInstance.Type.Matches(funcSig))
-                            throw new NotSupportedException(
-                                $"Type mismatch while importing Function {entityId.module}.{entityId.entity}: expected {funcSig.ToNotation()}, env provided Function {functionInstance.Type.ToNotation()}");
-                        //14. external imported addresses first
-                        moduleInstance.FuncAddrs.Add(funcAddr);
-                        break;
-                    case Module.ImportDesc.TableDesc tableDesc:
-                        var tableType = tableDesc.TableDef;
-                        if (GetBoundEntity(entityId) is not TableAddr tableAddr)
-                            throw new NotSupportedException(
-                                $"The imported Table was not provided by the environment: {entityId.module}.{entityId.entity}");
-                        var tableInstance = Store[tableAddr];
-                        if (!tableType.IsCompatibleWith(tableInstance.Type))
-                            throw new NotSupportedException(
-                                $"Type mismatch while importing Table {entityId.module}.{entityId.entity}: expected {tableType}, env provided Table {tableInstance.Type}");
-                        //15. external imported addresses first
-                        moduleInstance.TableAddrs.Add(tableAddr);
-                        break;
-                    case Module.ImportDesc.MemDesc memDesc:
-                        var memType = memDesc.MemDef;
-                        if (GetBoundEntity(entityId) is not MemAddr memAddr)
-                            throw new NotSupportedException(
-                                $"The imported Memory was not provided by the environment: {entityId.module}.{entityId.entity}");
-                        var memInstance = Store[memAddr];
-                        if (!memType.IsCompatibleWith(memInstance.Type))
-                            throw new NotSupportedException(
-                                $"Type mismatch while importing Memory {entityId.module}.{entityId.entity}: expected {memType}, env provided Memory {memInstance.Type}");
-                        //16. external imported addresses first
-                        moduleInstance.MemAddrs.Add(memAddr);
-                        break;
-                    case Module.ImportDesc.GlobalDesc globalDesc:
-                        var globalType = globalDesc.GlobalDef;
-                        if (GetBoundEntity(entityId) is not GlobalAddr globalAddr)
-                            throw new NotSupportedException(
-                                $"The imported Global was not provided by the environment: {entityId.module}.{entityId.entity}");
-                        var globalInstance = Store[globalAddr];
-                        if (globalInstance.Type != globalType)
-                            throw new NotSupportedException(
-                                $"Type mismatch while importing Global {entityId.module}.{entityId.entity}: expected {globalType}, env provided Global {globalInstance.Type}");
-                        //17. external imported addresses first
-                        moduleInstance.GlobalAddrs.Add(globalAddr);
-                        break;
-                }
-            }
-
-            //2. Allocate Functions and capture their addresses in the Store
-            //8. index ordered function addresses
-            foreach (var func in module.Funcs)
-            {
-                moduleInstance.FuncAddrs.Add(AllocateWasmFunc(Store, func, moduleInstance));
-            }
-
-            //3. Allocate Tables and capture their addresses in the Store
-            //9. index ordered table addresses
-            foreach (var table in module.Tables)
-            {
-                moduleInstance.TableAddrs.Add(AllocateTable(Store, table, Value.RefNull(table.ElementType)));
-            }
-
-            //4. Allocate Memories and capture their addresses in the Store
-            //10. index ordered memory addresses
-            foreach (var mem in module.Memories)
-            {
-                moduleInstance.MemAddrs.Add(AllocateMemory(Store, mem));
-            }
-            //Make the address space permanent
-            moduleInstance.MemAddrs.Finalize();
-
-            //@Spec 4.5.4 Step 7
-            Frame initFrame = Context.ReserveFrame(moduleInstance, FunctionType.Empty, FuncIdx.GlobalInitializers);
-            Context.PushFrame(initFrame);
-
-            //5. Allocate Globals and capture their addresses in the Store
-            //11. index ordered global addresses
-            foreach (var global in module.Globals)
-            {
-                var val = EvaluateInitializer(global.Initializer);
-                if (Context.Frame != initFrame)
-                    throw new TrapException($"Call stack was manipulated while initializing globals");
-                moduleInstance.GlobalAddrs.Add(AllocateGlobal(Store, global.Type, val));
-            }
-
-            Context.PopFrame();
-            Frame initFrame2 = Context.ReserveFrame(moduleInstance, FunctionType.Empty, FuncIdx.ElementInitializers);
-            Context.PushFrame(initFrame2);
-
-            //6. Allocate Elements
-            //12. index ordered element addresses
-            foreach (var elem in module.Elements)
-            {
-                var refs = EvaluateInitializers(elem.Initializers);
-                moduleInstance.ElemAddrs.Add(AllocateElement(Store, elem.Type, refs));
-            }
-
-            // @Spec 4.5.4 Step 10
-            Context.PopFrame();
-
-            //7. Allocate Datas
-            //13. index ordered data addresses
-            foreach (var data in module.Datas)
-            {
-                moduleInstance.DataAddrs.Add(AllocateData(Store, data.Init));
-            }
-
-            //18. Collect exports
-            //Process Exports, keep them, so they can be bound with a module name and imported by later modules.
-            HashSet<string> exportedEntities = new();
-            foreach (var export in module.Exports)
-            {
-                if (exportedEntities.Contains(export.Name))
-                    throw new InvalidDataException($"Module had multiple exports named {export.Name}");
-                exportedEntities.Add(export.Name);
-                
-                var desc = export.Desc;
-                ExternalValue val = desc switch
-                {
-                    Module.ExportDesc.FuncDesc funcDesc =>
-                        new ExternalValue.Function(moduleInstance.FuncAddrs[funcDesc.FunctionIndex]),
-                    Module.ExportDesc.TableDesc tableDesc =>
-                        new ExternalValue.Table(moduleInstance.TableAddrs[tableDesc.TableIndex]),
-                    Module.ExportDesc.MemDesc memDesc =>
-                        new ExternalValue.Memory(moduleInstance.MemAddrs[memDesc.MemoryIndex]),
-                    Module.ExportDesc.GlobalDesc globalDesc =>
-                        new ExternalValue.Global(moduleInstance.GlobalAddrs[globalDesc.GlobalIndex]),
-                    _ =>
-                        throw new InvalidDataException($"Invalid Export {desc}")
-                };
-                var exportInstance = new ExportInstance(export.Name, val);
-                //19. indexed export addresses
-                moduleInstance.Exports.Add(exportInstance);
-            }
-
-            //Patch in export names
-            var exportedFuncs = moduleInstance.Exports
-                .Where(exp => exp.Value is ExternalValue.Function);
-            foreach (var export in exportedFuncs)
-            {
-                var funcDesc = export.Value as ExternalValue.Function;
-                var funcAddr = funcDesc!.Address;
-                var funcInst = Store[funcAddr];
-                if (!funcInst.IsExport)
-                {
-                    funcInst.SetName(export.Name);
-                    funcInst.IsExport = true;
-                }
-            }
-
-            return moduleInstance;
-        }
-
-        /// <summary>
-        /// @Spec 4.5.4. Instantiation
-        /// </summary>
-        public ModuleInstance InstantiateModule(Module module, RuntimeOptions? options = default)
-        {
-            options ??= new RuntimeOptions();
-            try
-            {
-                //1
-                if (!options.SkipModuleValidation)
-                    module.ValidateAndThrow();
-            }
-            catch (ValidationException exc)
-            {
-                _ = exc;
-                throw;
-            }
-
-            try
-            {
-                Store.OpenTransaction();
-
-                ModuleInstance moduleInstance;
-                //2, 3, 4 Checks if imports are satisfied
-                moduleInstance = AllocateModule(module);
-
-                //12.
-                var auxFrame = Context.ReserveFrame(moduleInstance, FunctionType.Empty, FuncIdx.ElementInitialization);
-                //13.
-                Context.PushFrame(auxFrame);
-
-                //14, 15
-                for (int i = 0, l = module.Elements.Length; i < l; ++i)
-                {
-                    var elem = module.Elements[i];
-                    switch (elem.Mode)
-                    {
-                        case Module.ElementMode.ActiveMode activeMode:
-                            var n = elem.Initializers.Length;
-                            activeMode.Offset
-                                .ExecuteInitializer(Context);
-                            Context.InstructionFactory.CreateInstruction<InstI32Const>(OpCode.I32Const).Immediate(0)
-                                .Execute(Context);
-                            Context.InstructionFactory.CreateInstruction<InstI32Const>(OpCode.I32Const).Immediate(n)
-                                .Execute(Context);
-                            Context.InstructionFactory.CreateInstruction<InstTableInit>(ExtCode.TableInit)
-                                .Immediate(activeMode.TableIndex, (ElemIdx)i)
-                                .Execute(Context);
-                            Context.InstructionFactory.CreateInstruction<InstElemDrop>(ExtCode.ElemDrop)
-                                .Immediate((ElemIdx)i)
-                                .Execute(Context);
-                            break;
-                        case Module.ElementMode.DeclarativeMode declarativeMode:
-                            _ = declarativeMode;
-                            Context.InstructionFactory.CreateInstruction<InstElemDrop>(ExtCode.ElemDrop)
-                                .Immediate((ElemIdx)i)
-                                .Execute(Context);
-                            break;
-                    }
-                }
-
-                //16.
-                for (int i = 0, l = module.Datas.Length; i < l; ++i)
-                {
-                    var data = module.Datas[i];
-                    switch (data.Mode)
-                    {
-                        case Module.DataMode.ActiveMode activeMode:
-                            if (activeMode.MemoryIndex != 0)
-                                throw new NotSupportedException(
-                                    "Module could not be instantiated: Multiple Memories are not supported.");
-                            var n = data.Init.Length;
-                            activeMode.Offset
-                                .ExecuteInitializer(Context);
-                            Context.InstructionFactory.CreateInstruction<InstI32Const>(OpCode.I32Const).Immediate(0)
-                                .Execute(Context);
-                            Context.InstructionFactory.CreateInstruction<InstI32Const>(OpCode.I32Const).Immediate(n)
-                                .Execute(Context);
-                            Context.InstructionFactory.CreateInstruction<InstMemoryInit>(ExtCode.MemoryInit)
-                                .Immediate((DataIdx)i)
-                                .Execute(Context);
-                            Context.InstructionFactory.CreateInstruction<InstDataDrop>(ExtCode.DataDrop)
-                                .Immediate((DataIdx)i)
-                                .Execute(Context);
-                            break;
-                        case Module.DataMode.PassiveMode: //Do nothing
-                            break;
-                    }
-                }
-
-
-                //17. 
-                if (module.StartIndex != FuncIdx.Default)
-                {
-                    if (!moduleInstance.FuncAddrs.Contains(module.StartIndex))
-                        throw new ValidationException("Module StartFunction index was invalid");
-                    
-                    var startAddr = moduleInstance.FuncAddrs[module.StartIndex];
-                    if (!Context.Store.Contains(startAddr))
-                        throw new WasmRuntimeException("Module StartFunction address not found in the Store.");
-
-                    moduleInstance.StartFunc = startAddr;
-
-                    //Invoke the function!
-                    if (!options.SkipStartFunction)
-                    {
-                        try
-                        {
-                            var startInvoker = CreateInvoker<Action>(startAddr);
-                            startInvoker();
-                        }
-                        catch (TrapException)
-                        {
-                            //see linking.wast: line 412
-                            // We're supposed to commit if the start function traps I guess...
-                            Store.CommitTransaction();
-                            Store.OpenTransaction();
-                            throw;
-                        }
-                    }
-                }
-
-                //18.
-                if (Context.Frame != auxFrame)
-                    throw new InstantiationException("Execution fault in Module Instantiation.");
-                //19.
-                Context.PopFrame();
-
-                _moduleInstances.Add(moduleInstance);
-                
-                if (TranspileModules)
-                    TranspileModule(moduleInstance);
-                
-                return moduleInstance;
-            }
-            catch (WasmRuntimeException)
-            {
-                Store.DiscardTransaction();
-                Store.OpenTransaction();
-                Context.FlushCallStack();
-                throw;
-            }
-            catch (OutOfBoundsTableAccessException)
-            {
-                //The spec after v1 says to just keep active elements?
-                // see linking.wast:264
-                Store.CommitTransaction();
-                Store.OpenTransaction();
-                //Store.DiscardTransaction();
-
-                Context.FlushCallStack();
-                throw;
-            }
-            catch (TrapException)
-            {
-                Store.DiscardTransaction();
-                Store.OpenTransaction();
-                Context.FlushCallStack();
-                throw;
-            }
-            catch (NotSupportedException)
-            {
-                Store.DiscardTransaction();
-                Store.OpenTransaction();
-                Context.FlushCallStack();
-                throw;
-            }
-            finally
-            {
-                Store.CommitTransaction();
-            }
-        }
-
-
-        /// <summary>
-        /// @Spec 4.5.3.1. Functions
-        /// </summary>
-        private static FuncAddr AllocateWasmFunc(Store store, Module.Function func, ModuleInstance moduleInst)
-        {
-            return store.AllocateWasmFunction(func, moduleInst);
-        }
-
-        /// <summary>
-        /// @Spec 4.5.3.2. Host Functions
-        /// </summary>
-        private static FuncAddr AllocateHostFunc(Store store, (string module, string entity) id, FunctionType funcType, Type delType, Delegate hostFunc)
-        {
-            return store.AllocateHostFunction(id, funcType, delType, hostFunc);
-        }
-
-        /// <summary>
-        /// @Spec 4.5.3.3. Tables
-        /// </summary>
-        private static TableAddr AllocateTable(Store store, TableType tableType, Value refVal)
-        {
-            var tableInst = new TableInstance(tableType, refVal);
-            var tableAddr = store.AddTable(tableInst);
-            return tableAddr;
-        }
-
-        /// <summary>
-        /// @Spec 4.5.3.4. Memories
-        /// </summary>
-        private static MemAddr AllocateMemory(Store store, MemoryType memType)
-        {
-            var memInst = new MemoryInstance(memType);
-            var memAddr = store.AddMemory(memInst);
-            return memAddr;
-        }
-
-        /// <summary>
-        /// @Spec 4.5.3.5. Globals
-        /// </summary>
-        private static GlobalAddr AllocateGlobal(Store store, GlobalType globalType, Value val)
-        {
-            var globalInst = new GlobalInstance(globalType, val);
-            var globalAddr = store.AddGlobal(globalInst);
-            return globalAddr;
-        }
-
-        /// <summary>
-        /// @Spec 4.5.3.6. Element segments
-        /// </summary>
-        private static ElemAddr AllocateElement(Store store, ReferenceType refType, List<Value> refs)
-        {
-            var elemInst = new ElementInstance(refType, refs);
-            var elemAddr = store.AddElement(elemInst);
-            return elemAddr;
-        }
-
-        /// <summary>
-        /// @Spec 4.5.3.7. Data Segments
-        /// </summary>
-        private static DataAddr AllocateData(Store store, byte[] init)
-        {
-            var dataInst = new DataInstance(init);
-            var dataAddr = store.AddData(dataInst);
-            return dataAddr;
-        }
-
-        /// <summary>
-        /// @Spec 4.5.4. Instantiation
-        /// Step 8.1
-        /// Execute instructions without gas
-        /// </summary>
-        private Value EvaluateInitializer(Expression ini)
-        {
-            if (ini.LabelTarget.Label.Arity != 1)
-                throw new InvalidDataException("Initializers must have arity of 1");
-            
-            ini.ExecuteInitializer(Context);
-            
-            var value = Context.OpStack.PopAny();
-            return value;
-        }
-
-        private List<Value> EvaluateInitializers(Expression[] inis)
-        {
-            return inis.Select(EvaluateInitializer).ToList();
-        }
-    }
-
-   
-}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/Wacs.Core/Runtime/WasmRuntimeBinding.cs b/Wacs.Core/Runtime/WasmRuntimeBinding.cs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a978f9b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Wacs.Core/Runtime/WasmRuntimeBinding.cs
@@ -0,0 +1,218 @@
+// /*
+//  * Copyright 2024 Kelvin Nishikawa
+//  *
+//  * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+//  * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+//  * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+//  *
+//  *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//  *
+//  * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+//  * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+//  * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+//  * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+//  * limitations under the License.
+//  */
+
+using System;
+using System.Collections.Generic;
+using System.IO;
+using System.Linq;
+using System.Reflection;
+using Wacs.Core.Runtime.Exceptions;
+using Wacs.Core.Runtime.Types;
+using Wacs.Core.Types;
+
+namespace Wacs.Core.Runtime
+{
+    public partial class WasmRuntime
+    {
+        public void RegisterModule(string moduleName, ModuleInstance moduleInstance)
+        {
+            _registeredModules[moduleName] = moduleInstance;
+
+            //Bind exports
+            foreach (var export in moduleInstance.Exports)
+            {
+                _entityBindings[(moduleName, export.Name)] = export.Value switch
+                {
+                    ExternalValue.Function func => func.Address,
+                    ExternalValue.Table table => table.Address,
+                    ExternalValue.Memory mem => mem.Address,
+                    ExternalValue.Global global => global.Address,
+                    _ => throw new InvalidDataException($"Corrupted Export Instance in {moduleName} ({export.Name})"),
+                };
+            }
+        }
+
+        public ModuleInstance GetModule(string? moduleName)
+        {
+            if (moduleName == null)
+                return _moduleInstances.Last();
+            
+            if (_registeredModules.TryGetValue(moduleName, out var moduleInstance))
+            {
+                return moduleInstance;
+            }
+            
+            var anonInstance = _moduleInstances.FirstOrDefault(m => m.Name == moduleName);
+            if (anonInstance != null)
+                return anonInstance;
+            
+            throw new Exception($"Module '{moduleName}' not found.");
+        }
+
+        public bool TryGetExportedFunction(string entity, out FuncAddr addr)
+        {
+            var exports = _moduleInstances.SelectMany(modInst => modInst.Exports)
+                .Where(export => export.Name == entity)
+                .Select(export => export.Value)
+                .Cast<ExternalValue.Function>()
+                .Select(func => func.Address);
+            addr = exports.LastOrDefault();
+            return addr != null;
+        }
+
+        public bool TryGetExportedFunction((string module, string entity) id, out FuncAddr addr)
+        {
+            try
+            {
+                addr = GetExportedFunction(id);
+                return true;
+            }
+            catch (UnboundEntityException)
+            {
+                var exports = _moduleInstances
+                    .Where(modInst => modInst.Name == id.module)
+                    .SelectMany(modInst => modInst.Exports)
+                    .Where(export => export.Name == id.entity)
+                    .Select(export => export.Value)
+                    .Cast<ExternalValue.Function>()
+                    .Select(func => func.Address)
+                    .ToList();
+
+                if (exports.Count > 0)
+                {
+                    addr = exports.Last();
+                    return true;
+                }
+                addr = FuncAddr.Null;
+                return false;
+            }
+        }
+
+        public FuncAddr GetExportedFunction((string module, string entity) id)
+        {
+            if (GetBoundEntity(id) is FuncAddr addr)
+            {
+                return addr;
+            }
+
+            throw new UnboundEntityException($"Function {id} was not exported from any modules currently loaded in the runtime.");
+        }
+
+        private IAddress? GetBoundEntity((string module, string entity) id) =>
+            _entityBindings.GetValueOrDefault(id);
+
+        // [RequiresUnreferencedCode("Uses reflection to match parameters for binding")]
+        public void BindHostFunction<TDelegate>((string module, string entity) id, TDelegate func)
+            where TDelegate : Delegate
+        {
+            var funcType = func.GetType();
+            var parameters = funcType.GetMethod("Invoke")?.GetParameters();
+            var paramTypes = parameters?
+                                 .Where(p=> !p.Attributes.HasFlag(ParameterAttributes.Out))
+                                 .Select(p => p.ParameterType)
+                                 .ToArray()
+                             ?? Array.Empty<Type>();
+            var outTypes = parameters?
+                               .Where(p=> p.Attributes.HasFlag(ParameterAttributes.Out))
+                               .Select(p => p.ParameterType)
+                               .ToArray()
+                           ?? Array.Empty<Type>();
+            
+            var returnTypeInfo = funcType.GetMethod("Invoke")?.ReturnType;
+            
+            var paramValTypes = new ResultType(paramTypes);
+            var outValTypes = outTypes.Select(t => ValTypeUtilities.UnpackRef(t)).ToArray();
+            var returnType = returnTypeInfo?.ToValType() ?? ValType.Nil;
+
+            if (returnType != ValType.Nil)
+            {
+                outValTypes = new ValType[] { returnType }.Concat(outValTypes).ToArray();
+            }
+            var returnValType = new ResultType(outValTypes);
+            
+            for (int i = paramValTypes.Types.Length - 1; i >= 0; --i)
+            {
+                if (paramValTypes.Types[i] == ValType.ExecContext)
+                {
+                    if (i > 0)
+                    {
+                        throw new ArgumentException(
+                            "ExecContext may only be the first parameter of a bound host function.");
+                    }
+                    //If it's the first, just unshift it.
+                    paramValTypes = new ResultType(paramValTypes.Types.Skip(1).ToArray());
+                }
+            }
+
+            Store.OpenTransaction();
+            var type = new FunctionType(paramValTypes, returnValType);
+            var funcAddr = AllocateHostFunc(Store, id, type, funcType, func);
+            Store.CommitTransaction();
+            _entityBindings[id] = funcAddr;
+        }
+
+        public string GetFunctionName(FuncAddr funcAddr)
+        {
+            if (!Context.Store.Contains(funcAddr))
+                throw new ArgumentException($"Runtime did not contain function address.");
+            var funcInst = Context.Store[funcAddr];
+            return funcInst.Id;
+        }
+
+        public FunctionType GetFunctionType(FuncAddr funcAddr)
+        {
+            if (!Context.Store.Contains(funcAddr))
+                throw new ArgumentException($"Runtime did not contain function address.");
+            var funcInst = Context.Store[funcAddr];
+            return funcInst.Type;
+        }
+
+        public MemoryInstance BindHostMemory((string module, string entity) id, MemoryType memType)
+        {
+            Store.OpenTransaction();
+            var memAddr = AllocateMemory(Store, memType);
+            _entityBindings[id] = memAddr;
+            Store.CommitTransaction();
+            return Store[memAddr];
+        }
+
+        public GlobalInstance BindHostGlobal((string module, string entity) id, GlobalType globalType, Value val)
+        {
+            if (globalType.ContentType != val.Type)
+                throw new ArgumentException(
+                    $"Global {globalType.ContentType} must be defined with matching type value {val}");
+            
+            Store.OpenTransaction();
+            var globAddr = AllocateGlobal(Store, globalType, val);
+            _entityBindings[id] = globAddr;
+            Store.CommitTransaction();
+            return Store[globAddr];
+        }
+
+        public TableInstance BindHostTable((string module, string entity) id, TableType tableType, Value val)
+        {
+            if (tableType.ElementType.StackType() != val.Type)
+                throw new ArgumentException(
+                    $"Table {tableType.ElementType} must be defined with matching element type value {val}");
+            
+            Store.OpenTransaction();
+            var tableAddr = AllocateTable(Store, tableType, val);
+            _entityBindings[id] = tableAddr;
+            Store.CommitTransaction();
+            return Store[tableAddr];
+        }
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/Wacs.Core/Runtime/WasmRuntimeExecution.cs b/Wacs.Core/Runtime/WasmRuntimeExecution.cs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cb19351
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Wacs.Core/Runtime/WasmRuntimeExecution.cs
@@ -0,0 +1,408 @@
+// /*
+//  * Copyright 2024 Kelvin Nishikawa
+//  *
+//  * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+//  * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+//  * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+//  *
+//  *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//  *
+//  * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+//  * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+//  * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+//  * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+//  * limitations under the License.
+//  */
+
+using System;
+using System.Linq;
+using System.Reflection;
+using Wacs.Core.Instructions;
+using Wacs.Core.OpCodes;
+using Wacs.Core.Runtime.Exceptions;
+using Wacs.Core.Runtime.Types;
+using Wacs.Core.Utilities;
+using Wacs.Core.WASIp1;
+
+namespace Wacs.Core.Runtime
+{
+    public partial class WasmRuntime
+    {
+        
+        private IInstruction? lastInstruction = null;
+        
+        private Delegates.GenericFuncs CreateInvoker(FuncAddr funcAddr, InvokerOptions options)
+        {
+            return GenericDelegate;
+            Value[] GenericDelegate(params object[] args)
+            {
+                var funcInst = Context.Store[funcAddr];
+                var funcType = funcInst.Type;
+                
+                Context.OpStack.PushScalars(funcType.ParameterTypes, args);
+
+                if (options.CollectStats != StatsDetail.None)
+                {
+                    Context.ResetStats();
+                    Context.InstructionTimer.Reset();
+                }
+
+                Context.ProcessTimer.Restart();
+
+                Context.Invoke(funcAddr);
+
+                Context.steps = 0;
+                long highwatermark = 0;
+                bool fastPath = options.UseFastPath();
+
+                try
+                {
+                    if (fastPath)
+                    {
+                        int comp = 0;
+                        do
+                        {
+                            comp = ProcessThread();
+                            Context.steps += comp;
+                            if (options.GasLimit > 0)
+                            {
+                                if (Context.steps >= options.GasLimit)
+                                {
+                                    throw new InsufficientGasException(
+                                        $"Invocation ran out of gas (limit:{options.GasLimit}).");
+                                }
+                            }
+                        } while (comp > 0);
+                    }
+                    else
+                    {
+                        long comp = 0;
+                        do
+                        {
+                            comp = ProcessThreadWithOptions(options);
+                            Context.steps += comp;
+
+                            if (options.GasLimit > 0)
+                            {
+                                if (Context.steps >= options.GasLimit)
+                                {
+                                    throw new InsufficientGasException(
+                                        $"Invocation ran out of gas (limit:{options.GasLimit}).");
+                                }
+                            }
+
+                            if (options.LogProgressEvery > 0)
+                            {
+                                highwatermark += comp;
+                                if (highwatermark >= options.LogProgressEvery)
+                                {
+                                    highwatermark -= options.LogProgressEvery;
+                                    Console.Error.Write('.');
+                                }
+                            }
+                        } while (comp > 0);
+                    }
+                }
+                catch (TrapException exc)
+                {
+                    Context.ProcessTimer.Stop();
+                    Context.InstructionTimer.Stop();
+                    if (options.LogProgressEvery > 0)
+                        Console.Error.WriteLine();
+                    if (options.CollectStats != StatsDetail.None)
+                        PrintStats(options);
+                    if (options.LogGas)
+                        Console.Error.WriteLine($"Process used {Context.steps} gas. {Context.ProcessTimer.Elapsed}");
+
+                    if (options.CalculateLineNumbers)
+                    {
+                        var ptr = Context.ComputePointerPath();
+                        var path = string.Join(".", ptr.Select(t => $"{t.Item1.Capitalize()}[{t.Item2}]"));
+                        (int line, string instruction) = Context.Frame.Module.Repr.CalculateLine(path);
+
+                        throw new TrapException(exc.Message + $":line {line} instruction #{Context.steps}\n{path}");
+                    }
+
+                    //Flush the stack before throwing...
+                    Context.FlushCallStack();
+                    throw;
+                }
+                catch (SignalException exc)
+                {
+                    Context.ProcessTimer.Stop();
+                    Context.InstructionTimer.Stop();
+                    if (options.LogProgressEvery > 0)
+                        Console.Error.WriteLine();
+                    if (options.CollectStats != StatsDetail.None)
+                        PrintStats(options);
+                    if (options.LogGas)
+                        Console.Error.WriteLine($"Process used {Context.steps} gas. {Context.ProcessTimer.Elapsed}");
+
+                    string message = exc.Message;
+                    if (options.CalculateLineNumbers)
+                    {
+                        var ptr = Context.ComputePointerPath();
+                        var path = string.Join(".", ptr.Select(t => $"{t.Item1.Capitalize()}[{t.Item2}]"));
+                        (int line, string instruction) = Context.Frame.Module.Repr.CalculateLine(path);
+                        message = exc.Message + $":line {line} instruction #{Context.steps}\n{path}";
+                    }
+
+                    //Flush the stack before throwing...
+                    Context.FlushCallStack();
+
+                    var exType = exc.GetType();
+                    var ctr = exType.GetConstructor(new Type[] { typeof(int), typeof(string) });
+                    throw ctr?.Invoke(new object[] { exc.Signal, message }) as Exception ?? exc;
+                }
+                catch (WasmRuntimeException)
+                {
+                    //Maybe Log?
+                    Context.FlushCallStack();
+                    throw;
+                }
+                
+                Context.ProcessTimer.Stop();
+                Context.InstructionTimer.Stop();
+                if (options.LogProgressEvery > 0) Console.Error.WriteLine("done.");
+                if (options.CollectStats != StatsDetail.None) PrintStats(options);
+                if (options.LogGas) Console.Error.WriteLine($"Process used {Context.steps} gas. {Context.ProcessTimer.Elapsed}");
+
+                Value[] results = new Value[funcType.ResultType.Arity];
+                var span = results.AsSpan();
+                Context.OpStack.PopScalars(funcType.ResultType, span);
+
+                return results;
+            }
+        }
+
+        public TDelegate CreateInvoker<TDelegate>(FuncAddr funcAddr, InvokerOptions? options = default)
+            where TDelegate : Delegate
+        {
+            options ??= new InvokerOptions();
+            var funcInst = Context.Store[funcAddr];
+            var funcType = funcInst.Type;
+
+            if (funcType.ResultType.Types.Length > 1)
+                throw new WasmRuntimeException("Binding multiple return values from wasm are not yet supported.");
+            
+            Delegates.ValidateFunctionTypeCompatibility(funcType, typeof(TDelegate));
+            var inner = CreateInvoker(funcAddr, options);
+            var genericDelegate = Delegates.AnonymousFunctionFromType(funcType, args =>
+            {
+                try
+                {
+                    Value[] results = funcType.ParameterTypes.Arity == 0
+                        ? inner()
+                        : (Value[])GenericFuncsInvoke.Invoke(inner, args);
+                    if (funcType.ResultType.Types.Length == 1)
+                        return results[0];
+                    return results;
+                }
+                catch (TargetInvocationException exc)
+                { //Propagate out any exceptions
+                    throw exc.InnerException;
+                }
+            });
+            
+            return (TDelegate)Delegates.CreateTypedDelegate(genericDelegate, typeof(TDelegate));
+        }
+
+        //No type checking, but you can get multiple return values
+        public Delegates.StackFunc CreateStackInvoker(FuncAddr funcAddr, InvokerOptions? options = default)
+        {
+            options ??= new InvokerOptions();
+            var invoker = CreateInvoker(funcAddr, options);
+            var funcInst = Context.Store[funcAddr];
+            var funcType = funcInst.Type;
+            object[] p = new object[funcType.ParameterTypes.Arity];
+            
+            return valueParams =>
+            {
+                for (int i = 0; i < funcType.ParameterTypes.Arity; ++i)
+                    p[i] = valueParams[i];
+
+                return invoker(p);
+            };
+        }
+
+        public int ProcessThread()
+        {
+            var inst = Context.Next();
+            if (inst == null)
+                return 0;
+            
+            return inst.Execute(Context);
+        }
+
+        public long ProcessThreadWithOptions(InvokerOptions options)
+        {
+            var inst = Context.Next();
+            if (inst == null)
+                return 0;
+            
+            //Trace execution
+            if (options.LogInstructionExecution != InstructionLogging.None)
+            {
+                LogPreInstruction(options, inst);
+            }
+
+            long steps = 0;
+            if (options.CollectStats == StatsDetail.Instruction)
+            {
+                Context.InstructionTimer.Restart();
+                steps += inst.Execute(Context);
+                Context.InstructionTimer.Stop();
+
+                var st = Context.Stats[(ushort)inst.Op];
+                st.count += steps;
+                st.duration += Context.InstructionTimer.ElapsedTicks;
+                Context.Stats[(ushort)inst.Op] = st;
+            }
+            else
+            {
+                Context.InstructionTimer.Start();
+                steps += inst.Execute(Context);
+                Context.InstructionTimer.Stop();
+            }
+
+            if (options.LogInstructionExecution.Has(InstructionLogging.Computes))
+            {
+                LogPostInstruction(options, inst);
+            }
+            
+            lastInstruction = inst;
+            return steps;
+        }
+
+        private void LogPreInstruction(InvokerOptions options, IInstruction inst)
+        {
+            switch ((OpCode)inst.Op)
+            {
+                //Handle these post
+                case var _ when IInstruction.IsNumeric(inst): break;
+                case var _ when IInstruction.IsVar(inst): break;
+                case var _ when IInstruction.IsLoad(inst): break;
+                
+                case OpCode.Call when options.LogInstructionExecution.Has(InstructionLogging.Binds) && IInstruction.IsBound(Context, inst):
+                case OpCode.CallIndirect when options.LogInstructionExecution.Has(InstructionLogging.Binds) && IInstruction.IsBound(Context, inst):
+                // case OpCode.CallRef when options.LogInstructionExecution.Has(InstructionLogging.Binds) && IInstruction.IsBound(Context, inst):
+                
+                case OpCode.Call when options.LogInstructionExecution.Has(InstructionLogging.Calls):
+                case OpCode.CallIndirect when options.LogInstructionExecution.Has(InstructionLogging.Calls):
+                // case OpCode.CallRef when options.LogInstructionExecution.Has(InstructionLogging.Calls):
+                case OpCode.Return when options.LogInstructionExecution.Has(InstructionLogging.Calls):
+                case OpCode.ReturnCallIndirect when options.LogInstructionExecution.Has(InstructionLogging.Calls):
+                case OpCode.ReturnCall when options.LogInstructionExecution.Has(InstructionLogging.Calls):
+                case OpCode.End when options.LogInstructionExecution.Has(InstructionLogging.Calls) && Context.GetEndFor() == OpCode.Func:
+                        
+                case OpCode.Block when options.LogInstructionExecution.Has(InstructionLogging.Blocks):
+                case OpCode.Loop when options.LogInstructionExecution.Has(InstructionLogging.Blocks):
+                case OpCode.If when options.LogInstructionExecution.Has(InstructionLogging.Blocks):
+                case OpCode.Else when options.LogInstructionExecution.Has(InstructionLogging.Blocks):
+                case OpCode.End when options.LogInstructionExecution.Has(InstructionLogging.Blocks) && Context.GetEndFor() == OpCode.Block:
+                            
+                case OpCode.Br when options.LogInstructionExecution.Has(InstructionLogging.Branches):
+                case OpCode.BrIf when options.LogInstructionExecution.Has(InstructionLogging.Branches):
+                case OpCode.BrTable when options.LogInstructionExecution.Has(InstructionLogging.Branches):
+                
+                case var _ when IInstruction.IsBranch(lastInstruction) && options.LogInstructionExecution.Has(InstructionLogging.Branches):
+                case var _ when options.LogInstructionExecution.Has(InstructionLogging.Computes):
+                    string location = "";
+                    if (options.CalculateLineNumbers)
+                    {
+                        var ptr = Context.ComputePointerPath();
+                        var path = string.Join(".", ptr.Select(t => $"{t.Item1.Capitalize()}[{t.Item2}]"));
+                        (int line, string instruction) = Context.Frame.Module.Repr.CalculateLine(path);
+                        location = $"line {line.ToString().PadLeft(7,' ')}";
+                        if (options.ShowPath)
+                            location += $":{path}";
+                            
+                        var log = $"{location}: {inst.RenderText(Context)}".PadRight(40, ' ');
+                        Console.Error.WriteLine(log);
+                    }
+                    else
+                    {
+                        var log = $"Instruction: {inst.RenderText(Context)}".PadRight(40, ' ') + location;
+                        Console.Error.WriteLine(log);
+                    }
+                    break; 
+            }
+        }
+
+        private void LogPostInstruction(InvokerOptions options, IInstruction inst)
+        {
+            if ((options.LogInstructionExecution & InstructionLogging.Computes) == 0)
+                return;
+            
+            switch ((OpCode)inst.Op)
+            {
+                case var _ when IInstruction.IsLoad(inst):
+                case var _ when IInstruction.IsNumeric(inst): 
+                case var _ when IInstruction.IsVar(inst):
+                    string location = "";
+                    if (options.CalculateLineNumbers)
+                    {
+                        var ptr = Context.ComputePointerPath();
+                        var path = string.Join(".", ptr.Select(t => $"{t.Item1.Capitalize()}[{t.Item2}]"));
+                        (int line, string instruction) = Context.Frame.Module.Repr.CalculateLine(path);
+                        location = $"line {line.ToString().PadLeft(7,' ')}";
+                        if (options.ShowPath)
+                            location += $":{path}";
+                            
+                        var log = $"{location}: {inst.RenderText(Context)}".PadRight(40, ' ');
+                        Console.Error.WriteLine(log);
+                    }
+                    else
+                    {
+                        var log = $"Instruction: {inst.RenderText(Context)}".PadRight(40, ' ') + location;
+                        Console.Error.WriteLine(log);
+                    }
+                    break; 
+                default: return;
+            }
+        }
+
+        private void PrintStats(InvokerOptions options)
+        {
+            long procTicks = Context.ProcessTimer.ElapsedTicks; //ns
+            long totalExecs = options.CollectStats == StatsDetail.Instruction
+                ? Context.Stats.Values.Sum(dc => dc.count)
+                : Context.steps;
+            long execTicks = options.CollectStats == StatsDetail.Instruction
+                ? Context.Stats.Values.Sum(dc => dc.duration)
+                : Context.InstructionTimer.ElapsedTicks;
+            long overheadTicks = procTicks - execTicks;
+
+            TimeSpan totalTime = new TimeSpan(procTicks/100); //100ns
+            TimeSpan execTime = new TimeSpan(execTicks/100);
+            TimeSpan overheadTime = new TimeSpan(overheadTicks/100);
+            double overheadPercent =  100.0 * overheadTicks / procTicks;
+            double execPercent = 100.0 * execTicks / procTicks;
+            string overheadLabel = $"({overheadPercent:#0.###}%) {overheadTime:g}";
+            
+            string totalLabel = "    total duration";
+            string totalInst = $"{totalExecs}";
+            string totalPercent = $"{execPercent:#0.###}%t".PadLeft(8,' ');
+            string avgTime = $"{execTime.TotalMilliseconds * 1000000.0/totalExecs:#0.###}ns/i";
+            double instPerSec = totalExecs * 1000.0 / totalTime.TotalMilliseconds;
+            string velocity = $"{instPerSec.SiSuffix("0.###")}i/s";
+            Console.Error.WriteLine($"Execution Stats:");
+            Console.Error.WriteLine($"{totalLabel}: {totalInst}| ({totalPercent}) {execTime.TotalSeconds:#0.###}s {avgTime} {velocity} overhead:{overheadLabel} total proctime:{totalTime.TotalSeconds:#0.###}s");
+            var orderedStats = Context.Stats
+                .Where(bdc => bdc.Value.count != 0)
+                .OrderBy(bdc => -bdc.Value.count);
+            
+            foreach (var (opcode, st) in orderedStats)
+            {
+                string label = $"{((ByteCode)opcode).GetMnemonic()}".PadLeft(totalLabel.Length, ' ');
+                TimeSpan instTime = new TimeSpan(st.duration/100); //100ns
+                double percent = 100.0 * st.duration / execTicks;
+                string execsLabel = $"{st.count}".PadLeft(totalInst.Length, ' ');
+                string percentLabel = $"{percent:#0.###}%e".PadLeft(8,' ');
+                string instAve = $"{instTime.TotalMilliseconds * 1000000.0/st.count:#0.#}ns/i";
+                Console.Error.WriteLine($"{label}: {execsLabel}| ({percentLabel}) {instTime.TotalMilliseconds:#0.000}ms {instAve}");
+            }
+        }
+
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/Wacs.Core/Runtime/WasmRuntimeInstantiation.cs b/Wacs.Core/Runtime/WasmRuntimeInstantiation.cs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2269e7f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Wacs.Core/Runtime/WasmRuntimeInstantiation.cs
@@ -0,0 +1,493 @@
+// /*
+//  * Copyright 2024 Kelvin Nishikawa
+//  *
+//  * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+//  * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+//  * You may obtain a copy of the License at
+//  *
+//  *     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//  *
+//  * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+//  * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+//  * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+//  * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+//  * limitations under the License.
+//  */
+
+using System;
+using System.Collections.Generic;
+using System.IO;
+using System.Linq;
+using System.Reflection;
+using System.Runtime.ExceptionServices;
+using FluentValidation;
+using Wacs.Core.Instructions;
+using Wacs.Core.Instructions.Numeric;
+using Wacs.Core.OpCodes;
+using Wacs.Core.Runtime.Exceptions;
+using Wacs.Core.Runtime.Types;
+using Wacs.Core.Types;
+using Wacs.Core.Utilities;
+using Wacs.Core.WASIp1;
+
+// using System.Diagnostics.CodeAnalysis;
+
+namespace Wacs.Core.Runtime
+{
+    public partial class WasmRuntime
+    {
+        private static readonly MethodInfo GenericFuncsInvoke = typeof(Delegates.GenericFuncs).GetMethod("Invoke")!;
+        private readonly Dictionary<(string module, string entity), IAddress?> _entityBindings = new();
+
+        private readonly List<ModuleInstance> _moduleInstances = new();
+        private readonly Dictionary<string, ModuleInstance> _registeredModules = new();
+
+        private readonly ExecContext Context;
+
+        private readonly Store Store;
+
+
+        public WasmRuntime(RuntimeAttributes? attributes = null)
+        {
+            Store = new Store();
+            Context = new ExecContext(Store, attributes);
+        }
+
+        /// <summary>
+        /// @Spec 4.5.3.10. Modules Allocation
+        /// *We also evaluate globals and elements here, per instantiation
+        /// </summary>
+        private ModuleInstance AllocateModule(Module module)
+        {
+            //20. Include Types from module
+            var moduleInstance = new ModuleInstance(module);
+
+            //Resolve Imports
+            foreach (var import in module.Imports)
+            {
+                var entityId = (module: import.ModuleName, entity: import.Name);
+                switch (import.Desc)
+                {
+                    case Module.ImportDesc.FuncDesc funcDesc:
+                        // @Spec 4.5.3.2. @note: Host Functions must be bound to the environment prior to module instantiation!
+                        var funcSig = moduleInstance.Types[funcDesc.TypeIndex];
+                        if (GetBoundEntity(entityId) is not FuncAddr funcAddr)
+                            throw new NotSupportedException(
+                                $"The imported Function was not provided by the environment: {entityId.module}.{entityId.entity} {funcSig.ToNotation()}");
+                        var functionInstance = Store[funcAddr];
+                        if (functionInstance is FunctionInstance wasmFunc)
+                        {
+                            wasmFunc.SetName(entityId.entity);
+                        }
+                        if (!functionInstance.Type.Matches(funcSig))
+                            throw new NotSupportedException(
+                                $"Type mismatch while importing Function {entityId.module}.{entityId.entity}: expected {funcSig.ToNotation()}, env provided Function {functionInstance.Type.ToNotation()}");
+                        //14. external imported addresses first
+                        moduleInstance.FuncAddrs.Add(funcAddr);
+                        break;
+                    case Module.ImportDesc.TableDesc tableDesc:
+                        var tableType = tableDesc.TableDef;
+                        if (GetBoundEntity(entityId) is not TableAddr tableAddr)
+                            throw new NotSupportedException(
+                                $"The imported Table was not provided by the environment: {entityId.module}.{entityId.entity}");
+                        var tableInstance = Store[tableAddr];
+                        if (!tableType.IsCompatibleWith(tableInstance.Type))
+                            throw new NotSupportedException(
+                                $"Type mismatch while importing Table {entityId.module}.{entityId.entity}: expected {tableType}, env provided Table {tableInstance.Type}");
+                        //15. external imported addresses first
+                        moduleInstance.TableAddrs.Add(tableAddr);
+                        break;
+                    case Module.ImportDesc.MemDesc memDesc:
+                        var memType = memDesc.MemDef;
+                        if (GetBoundEntity(entityId) is not MemAddr memAddr)
+                            throw new NotSupportedException(
+                                $"The imported Memory was not provided by the environment: {entityId.module}.{entityId.entity}");
+                        var memInstance = Store[memAddr];
+                        if (!memType.IsCompatibleWith(memInstance.Type))
+                            throw new NotSupportedException(
+                                $"Type mismatch while importing Memory {entityId.module}.{entityId.entity}: expected {memType}, env provided Memory {memInstance.Type}");
+                        //16. external imported addresses first
+                        moduleInstance.MemAddrs.Add(memAddr);
+                        break;
+                    case Module.ImportDesc.GlobalDesc globalDesc:
+                        var globalType = globalDesc.GlobalDef;
+                        if (GetBoundEntity(entityId) is not GlobalAddr globalAddr)
+                            throw new NotSupportedException(
+                                $"The imported Global was not provided by the environment: {entityId.module}.{entityId.entity}");
+                        var globalInstance = Store[globalAddr];
+                        if (globalInstance.Type != globalType)
+                            throw new NotSupportedException(
+                                $"Type mismatch while importing Global {entityId.module}.{entityId.entity}: expected {globalType}, env provided Global {globalInstance.Type}");
+                        //17. external imported addresses first
+                        moduleInstance.GlobalAddrs.Add(globalAddr);
+                        break;
+                }
+            }
+
+            //2. Allocate Functions and capture their addresses in the Store
+            //8. index ordered function addresses
+            foreach (var func in module.Funcs)
+            {
+                moduleInstance.FuncAddrs.Add(AllocateWasmFunc(Store, func, moduleInstance));
+            }
+
+            //3. Allocate Tables and capture their addresses in the Store
+            //9. index ordered table addresses
+            foreach (var table in module.Tables)
+            {
+                moduleInstance.TableAddrs.Add(AllocateTable(Store, table, Value.RefNull(table.ElementType)));
+            }
+
+            //4. Allocate Memories and capture their addresses in the Store
+            //10. index ordered memory addresses
+            foreach (var mem in module.Memories)
+            {
+                moduleInstance.MemAddrs.Add(AllocateMemory(Store, mem));
+            }
+            //Make the address space permanent
+            moduleInstance.MemAddrs.Finalize();
+
+            //@Spec 4.5.4 Step 7
+            Frame initFrame = Context.ReserveFrame(moduleInstance, FunctionType.Empty, FuncIdx.GlobalInitializers);
+            Context.PushFrame(initFrame);
+
+            //5. Allocate Globals and capture their addresses in the Store
+            //11. index ordered global addresses
+            foreach (var global in module.Globals)
+            {
+                var val = EvaluateInitializer(global.Initializer);
+                if (Context.Frame != initFrame)
+                    throw new TrapException($"Call stack was manipulated while initializing globals");
+                moduleInstance.GlobalAddrs.Add(AllocateGlobal(Store, global.Type, val));
+            }
+
+            Context.PopFrame();
+            Frame initFrame2 = Context.ReserveFrame(moduleInstance, FunctionType.Empty, FuncIdx.ElementInitializers);
+            Context.PushFrame(initFrame2);
+
+            //6. Allocate Elements
+            //12. index ordered element addresses
+            foreach (var elem in module.Elements)
+            {
+                var refs = EvaluateInitializers(elem.Initializers);
+                moduleInstance.ElemAddrs.Add(AllocateElement(Store, elem.Type, refs));
+            }
+
+            // @Spec 4.5.4 Step 10
+            Context.PopFrame();
+
+            //7. Allocate Datas
+            //13. index ordered data addresses
+            foreach (var data in module.Datas)
+            {
+                moduleInstance.DataAddrs.Add(AllocateData(Store, data.Init));
+            }
+
+            //18. Collect exports
+            //Process Exports, keep them, so they can be bound with a module name and imported by later modules.
+            HashSet<string> exportedEntities = new();
+            foreach (var export in module.Exports)
+            {
+                if (exportedEntities.Contains(export.Name))
+                    throw new InvalidDataException($"Module had multiple exports named {export.Name}");
+                exportedEntities.Add(export.Name);
+                
+                var desc = export.Desc;
+                ExternalValue val = desc switch
+                {
+                    Module.ExportDesc.FuncDesc funcDesc =>
+                        new ExternalValue.Function(moduleInstance.FuncAddrs[funcDesc.FunctionIndex]),
+                    Module.ExportDesc.TableDesc tableDesc =>
+                        new ExternalValue.Table(moduleInstance.TableAddrs[tableDesc.TableIndex]),
+                    Module.ExportDesc.MemDesc memDesc =>
+                        new ExternalValue.Memory(moduleInstance.MemAddrs[memDesc.MemoryIndex]),
+                    Module.ExportDesc.GlobalDesc globalDesc =>
+                        new ExternalValue.Global(moduleInstance.GlobalAddrs[globalDesc.GlobalIndex]),
+                    _ =>
+                        throw new InvalidDataException($"Invalid Export {desc}")
+                };
+                var exportInstance = new ExportInstance(export.Name, val);
+                //19. indexed export addresses
+                moduleInstance.Exports.Add(exportInstance);
+            }
+
+            //Patch in export names
+            var exportedFuncs = moduleInstance.Exports
+                .Where(exp => exp.Value is ExternalValue.Function);
+            foreach (var export in exportedFuncs)
+            {
+                var funcDesc = export.Value as ExternalValue.Function;
+                var funcAddr = funcDesc!.Address;
+                var funcInst = Store[funcAddr];
+                if (!funcInst.IsExport)
+                {
+                    funcInst.SetName(export.Name);
+                    funcInst.IsExport = true;
+                }
+            }
+
+            return moduleInstance;
+        }
+
+        /// <summary>
+        /// @Spec 4.5.4. Instantiation
+        /// </summary>
+        public ModuleInstance InstantiateModule(Module module, RuntimeOptions? options = default)
+        {
+            options ??= new RuntimeOptions();
+            try
+            {
+                //1
+                if (!options.SkipModuleValidation)
+                    module.ValidateAndThrow();
+            }
+            catch (ValidationException exc)
+            {
+                ExceptionDispatchInfo.Throw(exc);
+            }
+            
+            ModuleInstance moduleInstance = null!;
+            try
+            {
+                Store.OpenTransaction();
+
+                //2, 3, 4 Checks if imports are satisfied
+                moduleInstance = AllocateModule(module);
+
+                //12.
+                var auxFrame = Context.ReserveFrame(moduleInstance, FunctionType.Empty, FuncIdx.ElementInitialization);
+                //13.
+                Context.PushFrame(auxFrame);
+
+                //14, 15
+                for (int i = 0, l = module.Elements.Length; i < l; ++i)
+                {
+                    var elem = module.Elements[i];
+                    switch (elem.Mode)
+                    {
+                        case Module.ElementMode.ActiveMode activeMode:
+                            var n = elem.Initializers.Length;
+                            activeMode.Offset
+                                .ExecuteInitializer(Context);
+                            Context.InstructionFactory.CreateInstruction<InstI32Const>(OpCode.I32Const).Immediate(0)
+                                .Execute(Context);
+                            Context.InstructionFactory.CreateInstruction<InstI32Const>(OpCode.I32Const).Immediate(n)
+                                .Execute(Context);
+                            Context.InstructionFactory.CreateInstruction<InstTableInit>(ExtCode.TableInit)
+                                .Immediate(activeMode.TableIndex, (ElemIdx)i)
+                                .Execute(Context);
+                            Context.InstructionFactory.CreateInstruction<InstElemDrop>(ExtCode.ElemDrop)
+                                .Immediate((ElemIdx)i)
+                                .Execute(Context);
+                            break;
+                        case Module.ElementMode.DeclarativeMode declarativeMode:
+                            _ = declarativeMode;
+                            Context.InstructionFactory.CreateInstruction<InstElemDrop>(ExtCode.ElemDrop)
+                                .Immediate((ElemIdx)i)
+                                .Execute(Context);
+                            break;
+                    }
+                }
+
+                //16.
+                for (int i = 0, l = module.Datas.Length; i < l; ++i)
+                {
+                    var data = module.Datas[i];
+                    switch (data.Mode)
+                    {
+                        case Module.DataMode.ActiveMode activeMode:
+                            if (activeMode.MemoryIndex != 0)
+                                throw new NotSupportedException(
+                                    "Module could not be instantiated: Multiple Memories are not supported.");
+                            var n = data.Init.Length;
+                            activeMode.Offset
+                                .ExecuteInitializer(Context);
+                            Context.InstructionFactory.CreateInstruction<InstI32Const>(OpCode.I32Const).Immediate(0)
+                                .Execute(Context);
+                            Context.InstructionFactory.CreateInstruction<InstI32Const>(OpCode.I32Const).Immediate(n)
+                                .Execute(Context);
+                            Context.InstructionFactory.CreateInstruction<InstMemoryInit>(ExtCode.MemoryInit)
+                                .Immediate((DataIdx)i)
+                                .Execute(Context);
+                            Context.InstructionFactory.CreateInstruction<InstDataDrop>(ExtCode.DataDrop)
+                                .Immediate((DataIdx)i)
+                                .Execute(Context);
+                            break;
+                        case Module.DataMode.PassiveMode: //Do nothing
+                            break;
+                    }
+                }
+
+
+                //17. 
+                if (module.StartIndex != FuncIdx.Default)
+                {
+                    if (!moduleInstance.FuncAddrs.Contains(module.StartIndex))
+                        throw new ValidationException("Module StartFunction index was invalid");
+                    
+                    var startAddr = moduleInstance.FuncAddrs[module.StartIndex];
+                    if (!Context.Store.Contains(startAddr))
+                        throw new WasmRuntimeException("Module StartFunction address not found in the Store.");
+
+                    moduleInstance.StartFunc = startAddr;
+
+                    //Invoke the function!
+                    if (!options.SkipStartFunction)
+                    {
+                        try
+                        {
+                            var startInvoker = CreateInvoker<Action>(startAddr);
+                            startInvoker();
+                        }
+                        catch (TrapException)
+                        {
+                            //see linking.wast: line 412
+                            // We're supposed to commit if the start function traps I guess...
+                            Store.CommitTransaction();
+                            Store.OpenTransaction();
+                            throw;
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+
+                //18.
+                if (Context.Frame != auxFrame)
+                    throw new InstantiationException("Execution fault in Module Instantiation.");
+                //19.
+                Context.PopFrame();
+
+                _moduleInstances.Add(moduleInstance);
+                
+                if (TranspileModules)
+                    TranspileModule(moduleInstance);
+            }
+            catch (WasmRuntimeException exc)
+            {
+                Store.DiscardTransaction();
+                Store.OpenTransaction();
+                Context.FlushCallStack();
+                ExceptionDispatchInfo.Throw(exc);
+            }
+            catch (OutOfBoundsTableAccessException exc)
+            {
+                //The spec after v1 says to just keep active elements?
+                // see linking.wast:264
+                Store.CommitTransaction();
+                Store.OpenTransaction();
+                //Store.DiscardTransaction();
+
+                Context.FlushCallStack();
+                ExceptionDispatchInfo.Throw(exc);
+            }
+            catch (TrapException exc)
+            {
+                Store.DiscardTransaction();
+                Store.OpenTransaction();
+                Context.FlushCallStack();
+                ExceptionDispatchInfo.Throw(exc);
+            }
+            catch (NotSupportedException exc)
+            {
+                Store.DiscardTransaction();
+                Store.OpenTransaction();
+                Context.FlushCallStack();
+                ExceptionDispatchInfo.Throw(exc);
+            }
+            finally
+            {
+                Store.CommitTransaction();
+            }
+            return moduleInstance;
+        }
+
+
+        /// <summary>
+        /// @Spec 4.5.3.1. Functions
+        /// </summary>
+        private static FuncAddr AllocateWasmFunc(Store store, Module.Function func, ModuleInstance moduleInst)
+        {
+            return store.AllocateWasmFunction(func, moduleInst);
+        }
+
+        /// <summary>
+        /// @Spec 4.5.3.2. Host Functions
+        /// </summary>
+        private static FuncAddr AllocateHostFunc(Store store, (string module, string entity) id, FunctionType funcType, Type delType, Delegate hostFunc)
+        {
+            return store.AllocateHostFunction(id, funcType, delType, hostFunc);
+        }
+
+        /// <summary>
+        /// @Spec 4.5.3.3. Tables
+        /// </summary>
+        private static TableAddr AllocateTable(Store store, TableType tableType, Value refVal)
+        {
+            var tableInst = new TableInstance(tableType, refVal);
+            var tableAddr = store.AddTable(tableInst);
+            return tableAddr;
+        }
+
+        /// <summary>
+        /// @Spec 4.5.3.4. Memories
+        /// </summary>
+        private static MemAddr AllocateMemory(Store store, MemoryType memType)
+        {
+            var memInst = new MemoryInstance(memType);
+            var memAddr = store.AddMemory(memInst);
+            return memAddr;
+        }
+
+        /// <summary>
+        /// @Spec 4.5.3.5. Globals
+        /// </summary>
+        private static GlobalAddr AllocateGlobal(Store store, GlobalType globalType, Value val)
+        {
+            var globalInst = new GlobalInstance(globalType, val);
+            var globalAddr = store.AddGlobal(globalInst);
+            return globalAddr;
+        }
+
+        /// <summary>
+        /// @Spec 4.5.3.6. Element segments
+        /// </summary>
+        private static ElemAddr AllocateElement(Store store, ReferenceType refType, List<Value> refs)
+        {
+            var elemInst = new ElementInstance(refType, refs);
+            var elemAddr = store.AddElement(elemInst);
+            return elemAddr;
+        }
+
+        /// <summary>
+        /// @Spec 4.5.3.7. Data Segments
+        /// </summary>
+        private static DataAddr AllocateData(Store store, byte[] init)
+        {
+            var dataInst = new DataInstance(init);
+            var dataAddr = store.AddData(dataInst);
+            return dataAddr;
+        }
+
+        /// <summary>
+        /// @Spec 4.5.4. Instantiation
+        /// Step 8.1
+        /// Execute instructions without gas
+        /// </summary>
+        private Value EvaluateInitializer(Expression ini)
+        {
+            if (ini.LabelTarget.Label.Arity != 1)
+                throw new InvalidDataException("Initializers must have arity of 1");
+            
+            ini.ExecuteInitializer(Context);
+            
+            var value = Context.OpStack.PopAny();
+            return value;
+        }
+
+        private List<Value> EvaluateInitializers(Expression[] inis)
+        {
+            return inis.Select(EvaluateInitializer).ToList();
+        }
+    }
+
+   
+}
\ No newline at end of file

From e628f00b324ea70a68229b4efad87bf92ec3a796 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Kelvin Nishikawa <kelnishi@gmail.com>
Date: Tue, 26 Nov 2024 18:42:44 -0800
Subject: [PATCH 3/4] Replacing string interpolation in validation assertions
 to save allocations

---
 Wacs.Core/Instructions/Control.cs             | 33 +++++++++----------
 Wacs.Core/Instructions/GlobalVariable.cs      |  6 ++--
 Wacs.Core/Instructions/LocalVariable.cs       |  6 ++--
 Wacs.Core/Instructions/Memory.cs              |  9 +++--
 Wacs.Core/Instructions/MemoryBulk.cs          | 16 ++++-----
 Wacs.Core/Instructions/Parametric.cs          |  5 ++-
 Wacs.Core/Instructions/Reference.cs           |  4 +--
 Wacs.Core/Instructions/SIMD/VLaneOp.cs        | 24 +++++++-------
 Wacs.Core/Instructions/SIMD/VMemory.cs        | 29 ++++++++--------
 Wacs.Core/Instructions/SIMD/ViShuffleOp.cs    |  2 +-
 Wacs.Core/Instructions/Table.cs               | 24 +++++++-------
 Wacs.Core/Instructions/TailCall.cs            |  8 ++---
 Wacs.Core/Modules/Sections/StackCalculator.cs |  8 +++--
 Wacs.Core/Modules/Sections/StackRenderer.cs   |  5 +--
 .../Validation/IWasmValidationContext.cs      |  5 ++-
 Wacs.Core/Validation/WasmValidationContext.cs | 14 ++++----
 16 files changed, 98 insertions(+), 100 deletions(-)

diff --git a/Wacs.Core/Instructions/Control.cs b/Wacs.Core/Instructions/Control.cs
index a8838a9..f662625 100644
--- a/Wacs.Core/Instructions/Control.cs
+++ b/Wacs.Core/Instructions/Control.cs
@@ -86,7 +86,7 @@ public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
             try
             {
                 var funcType = context.Types.ResolveBlockType(Block.Type);
-                context.Assert(funcType,  $"Invalid BlockType: {Block.Type}");
+                context.Assert(funcType,  "Invalid BlockType: {0}",Block.Type);
                 
                 //Check the parameters [t1*] and discard
                 context.OpStack.PopValues(funcType.ParameterTypes);
@@ -102,7 +102,7 @@ public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
                 _ = exc;
                 //Types didn't hit
                 context.Assert(false,
-                    $"Instruction block was invalid. BlockType {Block.Type} did not exist in the Context.");
+                    "Instruction block was invalid. BlockType {0} did not exist in the Context.",Block.Type);
             }
         }
 
@@ -162,7 +162,7 @@ public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
             try
             {
                 var funcType = context.Types.ResolveBlockType(Block.Type);
-                context.Assert(funcType, $"Invalid BlockType: {Block.Type}");
+                context.Assert(funcType, "Invalid BlockType: {0}",Block.Type);
                 
                 //Check the parameters [t1*] and discard
                 context.OpStack.PopValues(funcType.ParameterTypes);
@@ -178,7 +178,7 @@ public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
                 _ = exc;
                 //Types didn't hit
                 context.Assert(false,
-                    $"Instruciton loop invalid. BlockType {Block.Type} did not exist in the Context.");
+                    "Instruction loop invalid. BlockType {0} did not exist in the Context.",Block.Type);
             }
         }
 
@@ -241,7 +241,7 @@ public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
             try
             {
                 var ifType = context.Types.ResolveBlockType(IfBlock.Type);
-                context.Assert(ifType,  $"Invalid BlockType: {IfBlock.Type}");
+                context.Assert(ifType,  "Invalid BlockType: {0}",IfBlock.Type);
 
                 //Pop the predicate
                 context.OpStack.PopI32();
@@ -273,7 +273,7 @@ public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
                 _ = exc;
                 //Types didn't hit
                 context.Assert(false,
-                    $"Instruciton loop invalid. BlockType {IfBlock.Type} did not exist in the Context.");
+                    "Instruction loop invalid. BlockType {0} did not exist in the Context.",IfBlock.Type);
             }
         }
 
@@ -345,8 +345,7 @@ public class InstElse : InstEnd
         public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
         {
             var frame = context.PopControlFrame();
-            context.Assert(frame.Opcode == OpCode.If,
-                "Else terminated a non-If block");
+            context.Assert(frame.Opcode == OpCode.If, "Else terminated a non-If block");
             context.PushControlFrame(ElseOp, frame.Types);
         }
     }
@@ -440,7 +439,7 @@ public class InstBranch : InstructionBase, IBranchInstruction
         public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
         {
             context.Assert(context.ContainsLabel(L.Value),
-                $"Instruction br invalid. Could not branch to label {L}");
+                "Instruction br invalid. Could not branch to label {0}",L);
 
             var nthFrame = context.ControlStack.PeekAt((int)L.Value);
             
@@ -535,7 +534,7 @@ public class InstBranchIf : InstructionBase, IBranchInstruction
         public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
         {
             context.Assert(context.ContainsLabel(L.Value),
-                $"Instruction br_if invalid. Could not branch to label {L}");
+                "Instruction br_if invalid. Could not branch to label {0}",L);
             
             //Pop the predicate
             context.OpStack.PopI32();
@@ -598,7 +597,7 @@ public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
             //Pop the switch
             context.OpStack.PopI32();
             context.Assert(context.ContainsLabel(Ln.Value),
-                $"Instruction br_table invalid. Context did not contain Label {Ln}");
+                "Instruction br_table invalid. Context did not contain Label {0}", Ln);
             
             var mthFrame = context.ControlStack.PeekAt((int)Ln.Value);
             var arity = mthFrame.LabelTypes.Arity;
@@ -609,11 +608,11 @@ public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
             foreach (var lidx in Ls)
             {
                 context.Assert(context.ContainsLabel(lidx.Value),
-                    $"Instruction br_table invalid. Context did not contain Label {lidx}");
+                    "Instruction br_table invalid. Context did not contain Label {0}", lidx);
                 
                 var nthFrame = context.ControlStack.PeekAt((int)lidx.Value);
                 context.Assert(nthFrame.LabelTypes.Arity == arity,
-                    $"Instruction br_table invalid. Label {lidx} had different arity {nthFrame.LabelTypes.Arity} =/= {arity}");
+                    "Instruction br_table invalid. Label {0} had different arity {1} =/= {2}", lidx, nthFrame.LabelTypes.Arity,arity);
 
                 // if (!context.Unreachable)
                 //     nthFrame.ConditionallyReachable = true;
@@ -750,7 +749,7 @@ public bool IsBound(ExecContext context)
         public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
         {
             context.Assert(context.Funcs.Contains(X),
-                $"Instruction call was invalid. Function {X} was not in the Context.");
+                "Instruction call was invalid. Function {0} was not in the Context.",X);
             var func = context.Funcs[X];
             var type = context.Types[func.TypeIndex];
             context.OpStack.PopValues(type.ParameterTypes);
@@ -851,12 +850,12 @@ public bool IsBound(ExecContext context)
         public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
         {
             context.Assert(context.Tables.Contains(X),
-                $"Instruction call_indirect was invalid. Table {X} was not in the Context.");
+                "Instruction call_indirect was invalid. Table {0} was not in the Context.",X);
             var tableType = context.Tables[X];
             context.Assert(tableType.ElementType == ReferenceType.Funcref,
-                $"Instruction call_indirect was invalid. Table type was not funcref");
+                "Instruction call_indirect was invalid. Table type was not funcref");
             context.Assert(context.Types.Contains(Y),
-                $"Instruction call_indirect was invalid. Function type {Y} was not in the Context.");
+                "Instruction call_indirect was invalid. Function type {0} was not in the Context.",Y);
             var funcType = context.Types[Y];
 
             context.OpStack.PopI32();
diff --git a/Wacs.Core/Instructions/GlobalVariable.cs b/Wacs.Core/Instructions/GlobalVariable.cs
index bb8fe9c..0abbd7b 100644
--- a/Wacs.Core/Instructions/GlobalVariable.cs
+++ b/Wacs.Core/Instructions/GlobalVariable.cs
@@ -61,7 +61,7 @@ public override string RenderText(ExecContext? context)
         public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
         {
             context.Assert(context.Globals.Contains(Index),
-                $"Instruction global.get was invalid. Context Globals did not contain {Index}");
+                "Instruction global.get was invalid. Context Globals did not contain {0}",Index);
             var globalType = context.Globals[Index].Type;
             context.OpStack.PushType(globalType.ContentType);
         }
@@ -132,11 +132,11 @@ public override string RenderText(ExecContext? context)
         public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
         {
             context.Assert(context.Globals.Contains(Index),
-                $"Instruction global.set was invalid. Context Globals did not contain {Index}");
+                "Instruction global.set was invalid. Context Globals did not contain {0}",Index);
             var global = context.Globals[Index];
             var mut = global.Type.Mutability;
             context.Assert(mut == Mutability.Mutable,
-                $"Instruction global.set was invalid. Trying to set immutable global {Index}");
+                "Instruction global.set was invalid. Trying to set immutable global {0}",Index);
             context.OpStack.PopType(global.Type.ContentType);
 
         }
diff --git a/Wacs.Core/Instructions/LocalVariable.cs b/Wacs.Core/Instructions/LocalVariable.cs
index 7c41f25..0bc457d 100644
--- a/Wacs.Core/Instructions/LocalVariable.cs
+++ b/Wacs.Core/Instructions/LocalVariable.cs
@@ -62,7 +62,7 @@ public override string RenderText(ExecContext? context)
         public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
         {
             context.Assert(context.Locals.Contains(Index),
-                $"Instruction local.get was invalid. Context Locals did not contain {Index}");
+                "Instruction local.get was invalid. Context Locals did not contain {0}",Index);
             var value = context.Locals.Get(Index);
             context.OpStack.PushType(value.Type);
         }
@@ -126,7 +126,7 @@ public override string RenderText(ExecContext? context)
         public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
         {
             context.Assert(context.Locals.Contains(Index),
-                $"Instruction local.set was invalid. Context Locals did not contain {Index}");
+                "Instruction local.set was invalid. Context Locals did not contain {0}",Index);
             var value = context.Locals.Get(Index);
             context.OpStack.PopType(value.Type);
         }
@@ -191,7 +191,7 @@ public override string RenderText(ExecContext? context)
         public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
         {
             context.Assert(context.Locals.Contains(Index),
-                $"Instruction local.tee was invalid. Context Locals did not contain {Index}");
+                "Instruction local.tee was invalid. Context Locals did not contain {0}",Index);
             var value = context.Locals.Get(Index);
             context.OpStack.PopType(value.Type);
             context.OpStack.PushType(value.Type);
diff --git a/Wacs.Core/Instructions/Memory.cs b/Wacs.Core/Instructions/Memory.cs
index 1394331..597b459 100644
--- a/Wacs.Core/Instructions/Memory.cs
+++ b/Wacs.Core/Instructions/Memory.cs
@@ -82,9 +82,9 @@ public InstMemoryLoad(ValType type, BitWidth width) =>
         public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
         {
             context.Assert(context.Mems.Contains(M.M),
-                 $"Instruction {Op.GetMnemonic()} failed with invalid context memory 0.");
+                 "Instruction {0} failed with invalid context memory 0.",Op.GetMnemonic());
             context.Assert(M.Align.LinearSize() <= WidthT.ByteSize(),
-                    $"Instruction {Op.GetMnemonic()} failed with invalid alignment {M.Align.LinearSize()} <= {WidthT}/8");
+                    "Instruction {0} failed with invalid alignment {1} <= {2}/8",Op.GetMnemonic(),M.Align.LinearSize(),WidthT);
 
             context.OpStack.PopI32();
             context.OpStack.PushType(Type);
@@ -249,10 +249,9 @@ public IInstruction Immediate(MemArg m)
         public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
         {
             context.Assert(context.Mems.Contains(M.M),
-                 $"Instruction {Op.GetMnemonic()} failed with invalid context memory 0.");
+                 "Instruction {0} failed with invalid context memory 0.",Op.GetMnemonic());
             context.Assert(M.Align.LinearSize() <= TWidth.ByteSize(),
-                
-                    $"Instruction {Op.GetMnemonic()} failed with invalid alignment {M.Align.LinearSize()} <= {TWidth}/8");
+                    "Instruction {0} failed with invalid alignment {1} <= {2}/8",Op.GetMnemonic(),M.Align.LinearSize(),TWidth);
 
             //Pop parameters from right to left
             context.OpStack.PopType(Type);
diff --git a/Wacs.Core/Instructions/MemoryBulk.cs b/Wacs.Core/Instructions/MemoryBulk.cs
index 18604cf..5bba447 100644
--- a/Wacs.Core/Instructions/MemoryBulk.cs
+++ b/Wacs.Core/Instructions/MemoryBulk.cs
@@ -38,7 +38,7 @@ public class InstMemorySize : InstructionBase
         public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
         {
             context.Assert(context.Mems.Contains(M),
-                 $"Instruction {Op.GetMnemonic()} failed with invalid context memory {M}.");
+                 "Instruction {0} failed with invalid context memory {1}.",Op.GetMnemonic(),M);
             context.OpStack.PushI32();
         }
 
@@ -81,7 +81,7 @@ public class InstMemoryGrow : InstructionBase
         public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
         {
             context.Assert(context.Mems.Contains(M),
-                 $"Instruction {Op.GetMnemonic()} failed with invalid context memory {M}.");
+                 "Instruction {0} failed with invalid context memory {1}.",Op.GetMnemonic(),M);
             context.OpStack.PopI32();
             context.OpStack.PushI32();
         }
@@ -140,10 +140,10 @@ public class InstMemoryInit : InstructionBase
         public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
         {
             context.Assert(context.Mems.Contains(Y),
-                 $"Instruction {Op.GetMnemonic()} failed with invalid context memory {Y}.");
+                 "Instruction {0} failed with invalid context memory {1}.",Op.GetMnemonic(),Y);
 
             context.Assert(context.Datas.Contains(X),
-                 $"Instruction {Op.GetMnemonic()} failed with invalid context data {X}.");
+                 "Instruction {0} failed with invalid context data {1}.",Op.GetMnemonic(), X);
 
             context.OpStack.PopI32();
             context.OpStack.PopI32();
@@ -256,7 +256,7 @@ public class InstDataDrop : InstructionBase
         public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
         {
             context.Assert(context.Datas.Contains(X),
-                 $"Instruction {Op.GetMnemonic()} failed with invalid context data {X}.");
+                 "Instruction {0} failed with invalid context data {1}.",Op.GetMnemonic(),X);
         }
 
         // @Spec 4.4.7.13
@@ -303,9 +303,9 @@ public class InstMemoryCopy : InstructionBase
         public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
         {
             context.Assert(context.Mems.Contains(SrcX),
-                 $"Instruction {Op.GetMnemonic()} failed with invalid context memory {SrcX}.");
+                 "Instruction {0} failed with invalid context memory {1}.",Op.GetMnemonic(),SrcX);
             context.Assert(context.Mems.Contains(DstY),
-                $"Instruction {Op.GetMnemonic()} failed with invalid context memory {DstY}.");
+                "Instruction {0} failed with invalid context memory {1}.",Op.GetMnemonic(), DstY);
 
             context.OpStack.PopI32();
             context.OpStack.PopI32();
@@ -426,7 +426,7 @@ public class InstMemoryFill : InstructionBase
         public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
         {
             context.Assert(context.Mems.Contains(X),
-                 $"Instruction {Op.GetMnemonic()} failed with invalid context memory {X}.");
+                 "Instruction {0} failed with invalid context memory {1}.",Op.GetMnemonic(),X);
 
             context.OpStack.PopI32();
             context.OpStack.PopI32();
diff --git a/Wacs.Core/Instructions/Parametric.cs b/Wacs.Core/Instructions/Parametric.cs
index b4ebb9b..23b9a9a 100644
--- a/Wacs.Core/Instructions/Parametric.cs
+++ b/Wacs.Core/Instructions/Parametric.cs
@@ -70,8 +70,7 @@ public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
         {
             if (WithTypes)
             {
-                context.Assert(Types.Length == 1,
-                    $"Select instruction type must be of length 1");
+                context.Assert(Types.Length == 1, "Select instruction type must be of length 1");
                 var type = Types[0];
                 context.OpStack.PopI32();
                 context.OpStack.PopType(type);
@@ -84,7 +83,7 @@ public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
                 Value val2 = context.OpStack.PopAny();
                 Value val1 = context.OpStack.PopAny();
                 context.Assert(val1.Type.IsCompatible(val2.Type),
-                    $"Select instruction expected matching types on the stack: {val1.Type} == {val2.Type}");
+                    "Select instruction expected matching types on the stack: {0} == {1}",val1.Type,val2.Type);
 
                 if (!context.Attributes.Configure_RefTypes)
                 {
diff --git a/Wacs.Core/Instructions/Reference.cs b/Wacs.Core/Instructions/Reference.cs
index 1f8ff18..3d92c47 100644
--- a/Wacs.Core/Instructions/Reference.cs
+++ b/Wacs.Core/Instructions/Reference.cs
@@ -76,12 +76,12 @@ public class InstRefFunc : InstructionBase, IConstInstruction
         public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
         {
             context.Assert(context.Funcs.Contains(FunctionIndex),
-                $"Instruction ref.func is invalid. Function {FunctionIndex} was not in the context.");
+                "Instruction ref.func is invalid. Function {0} was not in the context.",FunctionIndex);
             //Seems like C.Refs isn't strictly necessary since FunctionSpace collects all the references
             var func = context.Funcs[FunctionIndex];
             
             context.Assert(func.IsFullyDeclared,
-                $"Instruction ref.func is invalid. Function {FunctionIndex} is not fully declared in the module.");
+                "Instruction ref.func is invalid. Function {0} is not fully declared in the module.",FunctionIndex);
             
             context.OpStack.PushFuncref(Value.NullFuncRef);
         }
diff --git a/Wacs.Core/Instructions/SIMD/VLaneOp.cs b/Wacs.Core/Instructions/SIMD/VLaneOp.cs
index 25eade8..c7cd6bf 100644
--- a/Wacs.Core/Instructions/SIMD/VLaneOp.cs
+++ b/Wacs.Core/Instructions/SIMD/VLaneOp.cs
@@ -176,22 +176,22 @@ private static ValidationDelegate ValidateFromLane(V128Shape shape) =>
                 switch (shape)
                 {
                     case V128Shape.I8x16: 
-                        context.Assert(l < 16, $"Instruction {op.GetMnemonic()} was invalid. Target Lane out of bounds.");
+                        context.Assert(l < 16, "Instruction {0} was invalid. Target Lane out of bounds.", op.GetMnemonic());
                         break;
                     case V128Shape.I16x8:
-                        context.Assert(l < 8, $"Instruction {op.GetMnemonic()} was invalid. Target Lane out of bounds.");
+                        context.Assert(l < 8, "Instruction {0} was invalid. Target Lane out of bounds.", op.GetMnemonic());
                         break;
                     case V128Shape.I32x4:
-                        context.Assert(l < 4, $"Instruction {op.GetMnemonic()} was invalid. Target Lane out of bounds.");
+                        context.Assert(l < 4, "Instruction {0} was invalid. Target Lane out of bounds.", op.GetMnemonic());
                         break;
                     case V128Shape.I64x2: 
-                        context.Assert(l < 2, $"Instruction {op.GetMnemonic()} was invalid. Target Lane out of bounds.");
+                        context.Assert(l < 2, "Instruction {0} was invalid. Target Lane out of bounds.", op.GetMnemonic());
                         break;
                     case V128Shape.F32x4:
-                        context.Assert(l < 4, $"Instruction {op.GetMnemonic()} was invalid. Target Lane out of bounds.");
+                        context.Assert(l < 4, "Instruction {0} was invalid. Target Lane out of bounds.", op.GetMnemonic());
                         break;
                     case V128Shape.F64x2:
-                        context.Assert(l < 2, $"Instruction {op.GetMnemonic()} was invalid. Target Lane out of bounds.");
+                        context.Assert(l < 2, "Instruction {0} was invalid. Target Lane out of bounds.", op.GetMnemonic());
                         break;
                     default: throw new InvalidOperationException("Unsupported lane shape");
                 }
@@ -216,27 +216,27 @@ private static ValidationDelegate ValidateToLane(V128Shape shape) =>
                 switch (shape)
                 {
                     case V128Shape.I8x16: 
-                        context.Assert(l < 16, $"Instruction {op.GetMnemonic()} was invalid. Target Lane out of bounds.");
+                        context.Assert(l < 16, "Instruction {0} was invalid. Target Lane out of bounds.", op.GetMnemonic());
                         context.OpStack.PopI32();
                         break;
                     case V128Shape.I16x8:
-                        context.Assert(l < 8, $"Instruction {op.GetMnemonic()} was invalid. Target Lane out of bounds.");
+                        context.Assert(l < 8, "Instruction {0} was invalid. Target Lane out of bounds.", op.GetMnemonic());
                         context.OpStack.PopI32(); 
                         break;
                     case V128Shape.I32x4:
-                        context.Assert(l < 4, $"Instruction {op.GetMnemonic()} was invalid. Target Lane out of bounds.");
+                        context.Assert(l < 4, "Instruction {0} was invalid. Target Lane out of bounds.", op.GetMnemonic());
                         context.OpStack.PopI32(); 
                         break;
                     case V128Shape.I64x2: 
-                        context.Assert(l < 2, $"Instruction {op.GetMnemonic()} was invalid. Target Lane out of bounds.");
+                        context.Assert(l < 2, "Instruction {0} was invalid. Target Lane out of bounds.", op.GetMnemonic());
                         context.OpStack.PopI64(); 
                         break;
                     case V128Shape.F32x4:
-                        context.Assert(l < 4, $"Instruction {op.GetMnemonic()} was invalid. Target Lane out of bounds.");
+                        context.Assert(l < 4, "Instruction {0} was invalid. Target Lane out of bounds.", op.GetMnemonic());
                         context.OpStack.PopF32(); 
                         break;
                     case V128Shape.F64x2:
-                        context.Assert(l < 2, $"Instruction {op.GetMnemonic()} was invalid. Target Lane out of bounds.");
+                        context.Assert(l < 2, "Instruction {0} was invalid. Target Lane out of bounds.", op.GetMnemonic());
                         context.OpStack.PopF64();
                         break;
                     default: throw new InvalidOperationException("Unsupported lane shape");
diff --git a/Wacs.Core/Instructions/SIMD/VMemory.cs b/Wacs.Core/Instructions/SIMD/VMemory.cs
index f9cde2b..f365044 100644
--- a/Wacs.Core/Instructions/SIMD/VMemory.cs
+++ b/Wacs.Core/Instructions/SIMD/VMemory.cs
@@ -63,9 +63,9 @@ public InstMemoryLoadMxN(BitWidth width, int count) =>
         public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
         {
             context.Assert(context.Mems.Contains(M.M),
-                $"Instruction {Op.GetMnemonic()} failed with invalid context memory 0.");
+                "Instruction {0} failed with invalid context memory 0.",Op.GetMnemonic());
             context.Assert(M.Align.LinearSize() <= WidthT.ByteSize() * CountN,
-                $"Instruction {Op.GetMnemonic()} failed with invalid alignment {M.Align.LinearSize()} <= {WidthT}/8");
+                "Instruction {0} failed with invalid alignment {1} <= {2}/8",Op.GetMnemonic(),M.Align.LinearSize(),WidthT);
 
             context.OpStack.PopI32();
             context.OpStack.PushV128();
@@ -169,9 +169,9 @@ public class InstMemoryLoadSplat : InstructionBase
         public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
         {
             context.Assert(context.Mems.Contains(M.M),
-                $"Instruction {Op.GetMnemonic()} failed with invalid context memory 0.");
+                "Instruction {0} failed with invalid context memory 0.",Op.GetMnemonic());
             context.Assert(M.Align.LinearSize() <= WidthN.ByteSize(),
-                $"Instruction {Op.GetMnemonic()} failed with invalid alignment {M.Align} <= {BitWidth.V128}/8");
+                "Instruction {0} failed with invalid alignment {1} <= {2}/8",Op.GetMnemonic(),M.Align,BitWidth.V128);
 
             context.OpStack.PopI32();
             context.OpStack.PushV128();
@@ -275,9 +275,9 @@ public class InstMemoryLoadZero : InstructionBase
         public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
         {
             context.Assert(context.Mems.Contains(M.M),
-                $"Instruction {Op.GetMnemonic()} failed with invalid context memory 0.");
+                "Instruction {0} failed with invalid context memory 0.",Op.GetMnemonic());
             context.Assert(M.Align.LinearSize() <= BitWidth.V128.ByteSize(),
-                $"Instruction {Op.GetMnemonic()} failed with invalid alignment {M.Align.LinearSize()} <= {BitWidth.V128}/8");
+                "Instruction {0} failed with invalid alignment {1} <= {2}/8",Op.GetMnemonic(),M.Align.LinearSize(),BitWidth.V128);
 
             context.OpStack.PopI32();
             context.OpStack.PushV128();
@@ -374,12 +374,12 @@ public class InstMemoryLoadLane : InstructionBase
         /// </summary>
         public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
         {
-            context.Assert(X < 128/WidthN.BitSize(),
-                $"Instruction {Op.GetMnemonic()} failed with invalid laneidx {X} <= {128/WidthN.BitSize()}");
+            context.Assert(X < 128 / WidthN.BitSize(),
+                "Instruction {0} failed with invalid laneidx {1} <= {2}", Op.GetMnemonic(), X, 128 / WidthN.BitSize());
             context.Assert(context.Mems.Contains(M.M),
-                $"Instruction {Op.GetMnemonic()} failed with invalid context memory 0.");
+                "Instruction {0} failed with invalid context memory 0.", Op.GetMnemonic());
             context.Assert(M.Align.LinearSize() <= WidthN.ByteSize(),
-                $"Instruction {Op.GetMnemonic()} failed with invalid alignment {M.Align.LinearSize()} <= {WidthN}/8");
+                "Instruction {0} failed with invalid alignment {1} <= {2}/8", Op.GetMnemonic(), M.Align.LinearSize(), WidthN);
             
             context.OpStack.PopV128();
             context.OpStack.PopI32();
@@ -488,13 +488,12 @@ public IInstruction Immediate(MemArg m)
         /// </summary>
         public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
         {
-            context.Assert(X < 128/WidthN.BitSize(),
-                $"Instruction {Op.GetMnemonic()} failed with invalid laneidx {X} <= {128/WidthN.BitSize()}");
+            context.Assert(X < 128 / WidthN.BitSize(),
+                "Instruction {0} failed with invalid laneidx {1} <= {2}", Op.GetMnemonic(), X, 128 / WidthN.BitSize());
             context.Assert(context.Mems.Contains(M.M),
-                $"Instruction {Op.GetMnemonic()} failed with invalid context memory 0.");
+                "Instruction {0} failed with invalid context memory 0.", Op.GetMnemonic());
             context.Assert(M.Align.LinearSize() <= WidthN.ByteSize(),
-                $"Instruction {Op.GetMnemonic()} failed with invalid alignment {M.Align.LinearSize()} <= {WidthN}/8");
-            
+                "Instruction {0} failed with invalid alignment {1} <= {2}/8", Op.GetMnemonic(), M.Align.LinearSize(), WidthN);
             context.OpStack.PopV128();
             context.OpStack.PopI32();
         }
diff --git a/Wacs.Core/Instructions/SIMD/ViShuffleOp.cs b/Wacs.Core/Instructions/SIMD/ViShuffleOp.cs
index 8174a5a..a29dcdd 100644
--- a/Wacs.Core/Instructions/SIMD/ViShuffleOp.cs
+++ b/Wacs.Core/Instructions/SIMD/ViShuffleOp.cs
@@ -32,7 +32,7 @@ public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
             for (int i = 0; i < 16; ++i)
             {
                 context.Assert(X[(byte)i] < 32,
-                    $"Instruction {Op.GetMnemonic()} was invalid. Lane {i} ({X[(byte)i]}) was >= 32.");
+                    "Instruction {0} was invalid. Lane {1} ({2}) was >= 32.",Op.GetMnemonic(),i,X[(byte)i]);
             }
 
             context.OpStack.PopV128();
diff --git a/Wacs.Core/Instructions/Table.cs b/Wacs.Core/Instructions/Table.cs
index 3b2faf7..608feaf 100644
--- a/Wacs.Core/Instructions/Table.cs
+++ b/Wacs.Core/Instructions/Table.cs
@@ -36,7 +36,7 @@ public class InstTableGet : InstructionBase
         public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
         {
             context.Assert(context.Tables.Contains(X),
-                 $"Instruction table.get failed to get table {X} from context");
+                 "Instruction table.get failed to get table {0} from context",X);
             var type = context.Tables[X];
             context.OpStack.PopI32();
             context.OpStack.PushType(type.ElementType.StackType());
@@ -96,7 +96,7 @@ public class InstTableSet : InstructionBase
         public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
         {
             context.Assert(context.Tables.Contains(X),
-                 $"Instruction table.set failed to get table {X} from context");
+                 "Instruction table.set failed to get table {0} from context", X);
             var type = context.Tables[X];
             context.OpStack.PopType(type.ElementType.StackType());
             context.OpStack.PopI32();
@@ -160,13 +160,13 @@ public class InstTableInit : InstructionBase
         public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
         {
             context.Assert(context.Tables.Contains(X),
-                 $"Instruction table.init is invalid. Table {X} not in the Context.");
+                 "Instruction table.init is invalid. Table {0} not in the Context.", X);
             var t1 = context.Tables[X];
             context.Assert(context.Elements.Contains(Y),
-                 $"Instruction table.init is invalid. Element {Y} not in the Context.");
+                 "Instruction table.init is invalid. Element {0} not in the Context.",Y);
             var t2 = context.Elements[Y];
             context.Assert(t1.ElementType == t2.Type,
-                 $"Instruction table.init is invalid. Type mismatch {t1.ElementType} != {t2.Type}");
+                 "Instruction table.init is invalid. Type mismatch {0} != {1}",t1.ElementType,t2.Type);
             context.OpStack.PopI32();
             context.OpStack.PopI32();
             context.OpStack.PopI32();
@@ -275,7 +275,7 @@ public class InstElemDrop : InstructionBase
         public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
         {
             context.Assert(context.Elements.Contains(X),
-                 $"Instruction elem.drop is invalid. Element {X} was not in the Context");
+                 "Instruction elem.drop is invalid. Element {0} was not in the Context",X);
         }
 
         // @Spec 4.4.6.8. elem.drop x
@@ -321,13 +321,13 @@ public class InstTableCopy : InstructionBase
         public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
         {
             context.Assert(context.Tables.Contains(DstX),
-                 $"Instruction table.copy failed. Table index {DstX} does not exist in Context");
+                 "Instruction table.copy failed. Table index {0} does not exist in Context",DstX);
             var t1 = context.Tables[DstX];
             context.Assert(context.Tables.Contains(SrcY),
-                 $"Instruction table.copy failed. Table index {SrcY} does not exist in Context");
+                 "Instruction table.copy failed. Table index {0} does not exist in Context",SrcY);
             var t2 = context.Tables[SrcY];
             context.Assert(t1.ElementType == t2.ElementType,
-                 $"Instruction table.copy failed. Table type mismatch {t1.ElementType} != {t2.ElementType}");
+                 "Instruction table.copy failed. Table type mismatch {0} != {1}",t1.ElementType,t2.ElementType);
             context.OpStack.PopI32();
             context.OpStack.PopI32();
             context.OpStack.PopI32();
@@ -446,7 +446,7 @@ public class InstTableGrow : InstructionBase
         public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
         {
             context.Assert(context.Tables.Contains(X),
-                 $"Instruction table.grow failed to get table {X} from context");
+                 "Instruction table.grow failed to get table {0} from context",X);
             var type = context.Tables[X];
             context.OpStack.PopI32();
             context.OpStack.PopType(type.ElementType.StackType());
@@ -513,7 +513,7 @@ public class InstTableSize : InstructionBase
         public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
         {
             context.Assert(context.Tables.Contains(X),
-                 $"Instruction table.set failed to get table {X} from context");
+                 "Instruction table.set failed to get table {0} from context",X);
             context.OpStack.PushI32();
         }
 
@@ -558,7 +558,7 @@ public class InstTableFill : InstructionBase
         public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
         {
             context.Assert(context.Tables.Contains(X),
-                 $"Instruction table.set failed to get table {X} from context");
+                 "Instruction table.set failed to get table {0} from context",X);
             var type = context.Tables[X];
             context.OpStack.PopI32();
             context.OpStack.PopType(type.ElementType.StackType());
diff --git a/Wacs.Core/Instructions/TailCall.cs b/Wacs.Core/Instructions/TailCall.cs
index c34132e..08c646f 100644
--- a/Wacs.Core/Instructions/TailCall.cs
+++ b/Wacs.Core/Instructions/TailCall.cs
@@ -52,7 +52,7 @@ public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
             
             //Call
             context.Assert(context.Funcs.Contains(X),
-                $"Instruction call was invalid. Function {X} was not in the Context.");
+                "Instruction call was invalid. Function {0} was not in the Context.",X);
             var func = context.Funcs[X];
             var type = context.Types[func.TypeIndex];
             context.OpStack.PopValues(type.ParameterTypes);
@@ -173,12 +173,12 @@ public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
             
             //Call Indirect
             context.Assert(context.Tables.Contains(X),
-                $"Instruction call_indirect was invalid. Table {X} was not in the Context.");
+                "Instruction call_indirect was invalid. Table {0} was not in the Context.",X);
             var tableType = context.Tables[X];
             context.Assert(tableType.ElementType == ReferenceType.Funcref,
-                $"Instruction call_indirect was invalid. Table type was not funcref");
+                "Instruction call_indirect was invalid. Table type was not funcref");
             context.Assert(context.Types.Contains(Y),
-                $"Instruction call_indirect was invalid. Function type {Y} was not in the Context.");
+                "Instruction call_indirect was invalid. Function type {0} was not in the Context.",Y);
             var funcType = context.Types[Y];
 
             context.OpStack.PopI32();
diff --git a/Wacs.Core/Modules/Sections/StackCalculator.cs b/Wacs.Core/Modules/Sections/StackCalculator.cs
index b0534b6..f7e7795 100644
--- a/Wacs.Core/Modules/Sections/StackCalculator.cs
+++ b/Wacs.Core/Modules/Sections/StackCalculator.cs
@@ -16,6 +16,7 @@
 
 using System;
 using System.Collections.Generic;
+using System.Diagnostics.CodeAnalysis;
 using System.IO;
 using System.Linq;
 using Wacs.Core.OpCodes;
@@ -113,6 +114,8 @@ public void PopValues(ResultType types, bool keep = true)
     
     public class StackCalculator: IWasmValidationContext
     {
+        private static readonly object NonNull = new();
+        
         public StackCalculator(ModuleInstance moduleInst, Module.Function func)
         {
             Types = new TypesSpace(moduleInst.Repr);
@@ -213,10 +216,9 @@ public void SetUnreachable()
             ControlFrame.Unreachable = true;
         }
 
+        public void Assert(bool factIsTrue, string formatString, params object[] args) { }
+        public void Assert([NotNull] object? objIsNotNull, string formatString, params object[] args) { objIsNotNull = NonNull; }
 
-        public void Assert(bool factIsTrue, string message) {}
-
-        public void Assert(object objIsNotNull, string message) { }
 
         public void ValidateBlock(Block instructionBlock, int index = 0) {}
     }
diff --git a/Wacs.Core/Modules/Sections/StackRenderer.cs b/Wacs.Core/Modules/Sections/StackRenderer.cs
index 38bfdea..5f64e7a 100644
--- a/Wacs.Core/Modules/Sections/StackRenderer.cs
+++ b/Wacs.Core/Modules/Sections/StackRenderer.cs
@@ -158,8 +158,9 @@ public FakeContext(Module module, Module.Function func)
 
         public IValidationOpStack OpStack => _opStack;
 
-        public void Assert(bool factIsTrue, string message) {}
-        public void Assert([NotNull] object? objIsNotNull, string message) { objIsNotNull = NonNull; }
+        
+        public void Assert(bool factIsTrue, string formatString, params object[] args) { }
+        public void Assert([NotNull] object? objIsNotNull, string formatString, params object[] args) { objIsNotNull = NonNull; }
 
         public FuncIdx FunctionIndex => FuncIdx.Default;
 
diff --git a/Wacs.Core/Validation/IWasmValidationContext.cs b/Wacs.Core/Validation/IWasmValidationContext.cs
index 144fc0e..beb7e67 100644
--- a/Wacs.Core/Validation/IWasmValidationContext.cs
+++ b/Wacs.Core/Validation/IWasmValidationContext.cs
@@ -49,9 +49,8 @@ public interface IWasmValidationContext
         public void PushControlFrame(ByteCode opCode, FunctionType types);
         public ValidationControlFrame PopControlFrame();
         public void SetUnreachable();
-
-        public void Assert(bool factIsTrue, string message);
-        public void Assert([NotNull] object? objIsNotNull, string message);
+        public void Assert(bool factIsTrue, string formatString, params object[] args);
+        public void Assert([NotNull] object? objIsNotNull, string formatString, params object[] args);
         public void ValidateBlock(Block instructionBlock, int index = 0);
     }
 }
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/Wacs.Core/Validation/WasmValidationContext.cs b/Wacs.Core/Validation/WasmValidationContext.cs
index a5fc287..100ff6a 100644
--- a/Wacs.Core/Validation/WasmValidationContext.cs
+++ b/Wacs.Core/Validation/WasmValidationContext.cs
@@ -96,16 +96,16 @@ public void SetUnreachable()
             ControlFrame.Unreachable = true;
         }
 
-        public void Assert(bool factIsTrue, string message)
+        public void Assert(bool factIsTrue, string formatString, params object[] args)
         {
-            if (!factIsTrue)
-                throw new ValidationException(message);
+            if (factIsTrue) return;
+            throw new ValidationException(string.Format(formatString, args));
         }
-
-        public void Assert([NotNull] object? objIsNotNull, string message)
+        
+        public void Assert([NotNull] object? objIsNotNull, string formatString, params object[] args)
         {
-            if (objIsNotNull == null)
-                throw new ValidationException(message);
+            if (objIsNotNull != null) return;
+            throw new ValidationException(string.Format(formatString, args));
         }
 
         public void ValidateBlock(Block instructionBlock, int index = 0)

From ae76d12a60c125fec4b18ccc8f3abb4437437eed Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Kelvin Nishikawa <kelnishi@gmail.com>
Date: Tue, 26 Nov 2024 19:04:53 -0800
Subject: [PATCH 4/4] Memory cleanup

---
 Wacs.Core/Instructions/Control.cs             | 37 +++++++++++--------
 Wacs.Core/Instructions/InstructionBase.cs     |  3 ++
 Wacs.Core/Instructions/TailCall.cs            | 14 ++++---
 Wacs.Core/Modules/Sections/StackCalculator.cs |  9 ++---
 Wacs.Core/Modules/Sections/StackRenderer.cs   | 10 ++---
 .../Runtime/Transpiler/FunctionTranspiler.cs  |  2 +
 Wacs.Core/Types/Expression.cs                 | 19 +++++-----
 Wacs.Core/Utilities/BinaryReaderExtension.cs  |  2 +
 Wacs.Core/Validation/ValidationOpStack.cs     |  6 +--
 Wacs.Core/Validation/WasmValidationContext.cs |  4 +-
 10 files changed, 60 insertions(+), 46 deletions(-)

diff --git a/Wacs.Core/Instructions/Control.cs b/Wacs.Core/Instructions/Control.cs
index f662625..0716c25 100644
--- a/Wacs.Core/Instructions/Control.cs
+++ b/Wacs.Core/Instructions/Control.cs
@@ -89,7 +89,8 @@ public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
                 context.Assert(funcType,  "Invalid BlockType: {0}",Block.Type);
                 
                 //Check the parameters [t1*] and discard
-                context.OpStack.PopValues(funcType.ParameterTypes);
+                context.OpStack.PopValues(funcType.ParameterTypes, ref _aside);
+                _aside.Clear();
                 
                 //ControlStack will push the values back on (Control Frame is our Label)
                 context.PushControlFrame(BlockOp, funcType);
@@ -165,7 +166,8 @@ public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
                 context.Assert(funcType, "Invalid BlockType: {0}",Block.Type);
                 
                 //Check the parameters [t1*] and discard
-                context.OpStack.PopValues(funcType.ParameterTypes);
+                context.OpStack.PopValues(funcType.ParameterTypes, ref _aside);
+                _aside.Clear();
                 
                 //ControlStack will push the values back on (Control Frame is our Label)
                 context.PushControlFrame(LoopOp, funcType);
@@ -247,7 +249,8 @@ public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
                 context.OpStack.PopI32();
                 
                 //Check the parameters [t1*] and discard
-                context.OpStack.PopValues(ifType.ParameterTypes);
+                context.OpStack.PopValues(ifType.ParameterTypes, ref _aside);
+                _aside.Clear();
                 
                 //ControlStack will push the values back on (Control Frame is our Label)
                 context.PushControlFrame(IfOp, ifType);
@@ -434,7 +437,7 @@ public class InstBranch : InstructionBase, IBranchInstruction
         public override ByteCode Op => OpCode.Br;
 
         private LabelIdx L;
-
+        
         // @Spec 3.3.8.6. br l
         public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
         {
@@ -444,7 +447,8 @@ public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
             var nthFrame = context.ControlStack.PeekAt((int)L.Value);
             
             //Validate results, but leave them on the stack
-            context.OpStack.PopValues(nthFrame.LabelTypes);
+            context.OpStack.PopValues(nthFrame.LabelTypes, ref _aside);
+            _aside.Clear();
 
             // if (!context.Unreachable)
             //     nthFrame.ConditionallyReachable = true;
@@ -529,7 +533,7 @@ public class InstBranchIf : InstructionBase, IBranchInstruction
         public override ByteCode Op => OpCode.BrIf;
 
         public LabelIdx L;
-
+        
         // @Spec 3.3.8.7. br_if
         public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
         {
@@ -544,7 +548,7 @@ public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
             //     nthFrame.ConditionallyReachable = true;
             
             //Pop values like we branch
-            context.OpStack.PopValues(nthFrame.LabelTypes);
+            context.OpStack.PopValues(nthFrame.LabelTypes, ref _aside);
             //But actually, we don't, so push them back on.
             context.OpStack.PushResult(nthFrame.LabelTypes);
         }
@@ -617,11 +621,12 @@ public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
                 // if (!context.Unreachable)
                 //     nthFrame.ConditionallyReachable = true;
                 
-                var vals = context.OpStack.PopValues(nthFrame.LabelTypes);
-                context.OpStack.PushValues(vals);
+                context.OpStack.PopValues(nthFrame.LabelTypes, ref _aside);
+                context.OpStack.PushValues(_aside);
             }
 
-            context.OpStack.PopValues(mthFrame.LabelTypes);
+            context.OpStack.PopValues(mthFrame.LabelTypes, ref _aside);
+            _aside.Clear();
             context.SetUnreachable();
         }
 
@@ -704,13 +709,13 @@ public class InstReturn : InstructionBase
     {
         public static readonly InstReturn Inst = new();
         public override ByteCode Op => OpCode.Return;
-
+        
         // @Spec 3.3.8.9. return
         public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
         {
             //keep the results for the block or function to validate
-            var vals = context.OpStack.PopValues(context.ReturnType);
-            context.OpStack.PushValues(vals);
+            context.OpStack.PopValues(context.ReturnType, ref _aside);
+            context.OpStack.PushValues(_aside);
             context.SetUnreachable();
         }
 
@@ -752,7 +757,8 @@ public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
                 "Instruction call was invalid. Function {0} was not in the Context.",X);
             var func = context.Funcs[X];
             var type = context.Types[func.TypeIndex];
-            context.OpStack.PopValues(type.ParameterTypes);
+            context.OpStack.PopValues(type.ParameterTypes, ref _aside);
+            _aside.Clear();
             context.OpStack.PushResult(type.ResultType);
         }
 
@@ -859,7 +865,8 @@ public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
             var funcType = context.Types[Y];
 
             context.OpStack.PopI32();
-            context.OpStack.PopValues(funcType.ParameterTypes);
+            context.OpStack.PopValues(funcType.ParameterTypes, ref _aside);
+            _aside.Clear();
             context.OpStack.PushResult(funcType.ResultType);
         }
 
diff --git a/Wacs.Core/Instructions/InstructionBase.cs b/Wacs.Core/Instructions/InstructionBase.cs
index f7199f6..c569741 100644
--- a/Wacs.Core/Instructions/InstructionBase.cs
+++ b/Wacs.Core/Instructions/InstructionBase.cs
@@ -14,6 +14,7 @@
 //  * limitations under the License.
 //  */
 
+using System.Collections.Generic;
 using System.IO;
 using Wacs.Core.OpCodes;
 using Wacs.Core.Runtime;
@@ -50,5 +51,7 @@ public abstract class InstructionBase : IInstruction
         public virtual IInstruction Parse(BinaryReader reader) => this;
 
         public virtual string RenderText(ExecContext? context) => Op.GetMnemonic();
+        
+        protected static Stack<Value> _aside = new();
     }
 }
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/Wacs.Core/Instructions/TailCall.cs b/Wacs.Core/Instructions/TailCall.cs
index 08c646f..f7308ad 100644
--- a/Wacs.Core/Instructions/TailCall.cs
+++ b/Wacs.Core/Instructions/TailCall.cs
@@ -46,8 +46,8 @@ public bool IsBound(ExecContext context)
         public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
         {
             //Return
-            var vals = context.OpStack.PopValues(context.ReturnType);
-            context.OpStack.PushValues(vals);
+            context.OpStack.PopValues(context.ReturnType, ref _aside);
+            context.OpStack.PushValues(_aside);
             context.SetUnreachable();
             
             //Call
@@ -55,7 +55,8 @@ public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
                 "Instruction call was invalid. Function {0} was not in the Context.",X);
             var func = context.Funcs[X];
             var type = context.Types[func.TypeIndex];
-            context.OpStack.PopValues(type.ParameterTypes);
+            context.OpStack.PopValues(type.ParameterTypes, ref _aside);
+            _aside.Clear();
             context.OpStack.PushResult(type.ResultType);
         }
 
@@ -167,8 +168,8 @@ public bool IsBound(ExecContext context)
         public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
         {
             //Return
-            var vals = context.OpStack.PopValues(context.ReturnType);
-            context.OpStack.PushValues(vals);
+            context.OpStack.PopValues(context.ReturnType, ref _aside);
+            context.OpStack.PushValues(_aside);
             context.SetUnreachable();
             
             //Call Indirect
@@ -182,7 +183,8 @@ public override void Validate(IWasmValidationContext context)
             var funcType = context.Types[Y];
 
             context.OpStack.PopI32();
-            context.OpStack.PopValues(funcType.ParameterTypes);
+            context.OpStack.PopValues(funcType.ParameterTypes, ref _aside);
+            _aside.Clear();
             context.OpStack.PushResult(funcType.ResultType);
         }
 
diff --git a/Wacs.Core/Modules/Sections/StackCalculator.cs b/Wacs.Core/Modules/Sections/StackCalculator.cs
index f7e7795..c521d35 100644
--- a/Wacs.Core/Modules/Sections/StackCalculator.cs
+++ b/Wacs.Core/Modules/Sections/StackCalculator.cs
@@ -69,15 +69,13 @@ public void PushValues(Stack<Value> vals) {
         public Value PopType(ValType type) => _context.Pop(type);
         public Value PopAny() => _context.Pop(ValType.Nil);
 
-        public Stack<Value> PopValues(ResultType types)
+        public void PopValues(ResultType types, ref Stack<Value> aside)
         {
-            var aside = new Stack<Value>();
             foreach (var type in types.Types.Reverse())
             {
                 var stackType = PopAny();
                 aside.Push(stackType);
             }
-            return aside;
         }
 
         public void ReturnResults(ResultType types)
@@ -197,13 +195,14 @@ public void PushControlFrame(ByteCode opCode, FunctionType types)
             OpStack.PushResult(types.ParameterTypes);
         }
 
+        private static Stack<Value> _aside = new();
         public ValidationControlFrame PopControlFrame()
         {
             if (ControlStack.Count == 0)
                 throw new InvalidDataException("Control Stack underflow");
             
-            //Check to make sure we have the correct results
-            OpStack.PopValues(ControlFrame.EndTypes);
+            OpStack.PopValues(ControlFrame.EndTypes, ref _aside);
+            _aside.Clear();
 
             //Reset the stack
             stackHeight = ControlFrame.Height;
diff --git a/Wacs.Core/Modules/Sections/StackRenderer.cs b/Wacs.Core/Modules/Sections/StackRenderer.cs
index 5f64e7a..21042b8 100644
--- a/Wacs.Core/Modules/Sections/StackRenderer.cs
+++ b/Wacs.Core/Modules/Sections/StackRenderer.cs
@@ -70,16 +70,14 @@ public void PushValues(Stack<Value> vals) {
 
         public Value PopType(ValType type) => _context.Pop(type);
         public Value PopAny() => _context.Pop(ValType.Nil);
-
-        public Stack<Value> PopValues(ResultType types)
+        
+        public void PopValues(ResultType types, ref Stack<Value> aside)
         {
-            var aside = new Stack<Value>();
             foreach (var type in types.Types.Reverse())
             {
                 var stackType = PopAny();
                 aside.Push(stackType);
             }
-            return aside;
         }
 
         public void ReturnResults(ResultType types)
@@ -181,13 +179,15 @@ public void PushControlFrame(ByteCode opCode, FunctionType types)
             OpStack.PushResult(types.ParameterTypes);
         }
 
+        private static Stack<Value> _aside = new();
         public ValidationControlFrame PopControlFrame()
         {
             if (ControlStack.Count == 0)
                 throw new InvalidDataException("Control Stack underflow");
             
             //Check to make sure we have the correct results
-            OpStack.PopValues(ControlFrame.EndTypes);
+            OpStack.PopValues(ControlFrame.EndTypes, ref _aside);
+            _aside.Clear();
             
             //Reset the stack
             if (OpStack.Height != ControlFrame.Height)
diff --git a/Wacs.Core/Runtime/Transpiler/FunctionTranspiler.cs b/Wacs.Core/Runtime/Transpiler/FunctionTranspiler.cs
index dcc0b7e..7558074 100644
--- a/Wacs.Core/Runtime/Transpiler/FunctionTranspiler.cs
+++ b/Wacs.Core/Runtime/Transpiler/FunctionTranspiler.cs
@@ -16,6 +16,7 @@
 
 using System;
 using System.Collections.Generic;
+using System.Diagnostics.CodeAnalysis;
 using System.Linq;
 using System.Reflection;
 using Wacs.Core.Instructions;
@@ -53,6 +54,7 @@ public static void TranspileFunction(FunctionInstance function)
             function.SetBody(new Expression(function.Type.ResultType.Arity, newSeq, false));
         }
 
+        [SuppressMessage("ReSharper.DPA", "DPA0000: DPA issues")]
         private static InstructionSequence OptimizeSequence(InstructionSequence seq)
         {
             if (seq.Count == 0)
diff --git a/Wacs.Core/Types/Expression.cs b/Wacs.Core/Types/Expression.cs
index 08712f3..640a05c 100644
--- a/Wacs.Core/Types/Expression.cs
+++ b/Wacs.Core/Types/Expression.cs
@@ -91,7 +91,6 @@ public void PrecomputeLabels(IWasmValidationContext vContext)
             LinkLabelTarget(vContext, Instructions, LabelTarget);
         }
         
-        //TODO: compute stack heights
         private void LinkLabelTarget(IWasmValidationContext vContext, InstructionSequence seq, BlockTarget enclosingTarget)
         {
             for (int i = 0; i < seq.Count; ++i)
@@ -118,15 +117,15 @@ private void LinkLabelTarget(IWasmValidationContext vContext, InstructionSequenc
                     {
                         throw new InvalidDataException($"Failure computing Labels. BlockType:{block.Type} did not exist in the Module");
                     }
-                    
-                    var label = new Label
-                    {
-                        Arity = arity,
-                        ContinuationAddress = new InstructionPointer(seq, i),
-                        Instruction = inst.Op,
-                        //HACK: Use any existing precomputed StackHeight (assume optimization has not changed this value)
-                        StackHeight = (target.Label?.StackHeight ?? -1) >= 0 ? target.Label!.StackHeight : vContext.OpStack.Height,
-                    };
+
+                    var label = target.Label ?? new Label();
+                    label.Arity = arity;
+                    label.ContinuationAddress = new InstructionPointer(seq, i);
+                    label.Instruction = inst.Op;
+                    //HACK: Use any existing precomputed StackHeight (assume optimization has not changed this value)
+                    label.StackHeight = (target.Label?.StackHeight ?? -1) >= 0
+                        ? target.Label!.StackHeight
+                        : vContext.OpStack.Height;
                     
                     for (int b = 0; b < blockInst!.Count; ++b)
                         LinkLabelTarget(vContext,blockInst.GetBlock(b).Instructions, target);
diff --git a/Wacs.Core/Utilities/BinaryReaderExtension.cs b/Wacs.Core/Utilities/BinaryReaderExtension.cs
index 1d215a2..1691ac5 100644
--- a/Wacs.Core/Utilities/BinaryReaderExtension.cs
+++ b/Wacs.Core/Utilities/BinaryReaderExtension.cs
@@ -16,6 +16,7 @@
 
 using System;
 using System.Collections.Generic;
+using System.Diagnostics.CodeAnalysis;
 using System.IO;
 using System.Text;
 
@@ -269,6 +270,7 @@ public static List<T> ParseList<T>(this BinaryReader reader, Func<BinaryReader,
             return vector;
         }
 
+        [SuppressMessage("ReSharper.DPA", "DPA0000: DPA issues")]
         public static List<T> ParseUntil<T>(this BinaryReader reader, Func<BinaryReader, T?> elementParser,
             Func<T, bool> predicate)
             where T : class
diff --git a/Wacs.Core/Validation/ValidationOpStack.cs b/Wacs.Core/Validation/ValidationOpStack.cs
index f660e34..bed1870 100644
--- a/Wacs.Core/Validation/ValidationOpStack.cs
+++ b/Wacs.Core/Validation/ValidationOpStack.cs
@@ -45,7 +45,7 @@ public interface IValidationOpStack
         Value PopType(ValType expectedType);
         Value PopAny();
 
-        Stack<Value> PopValues(ResultType types);
+        void PopValues(ResultType types, ref Stack<Value> aside);
         public void ReturnResults(ResultType type);
     }
 
@@ -251,14 +251,12 @@ public Value PopType(ValType expectedType)
             return actual;
         }
 
-        public Stack<Value> PopValues(ResultType types)
+        public void PopValues(ResultType types, ref Stack<Value> aside)
         {
-            var aside = new Stack<Value>();
             foreach (var type in types.Types.Reverse())
             {
                 aside.Push(PopType(type));
             }
-            return aside;
         }
 
         public void ReturnResults(ResultType types)
diff --git a/Wacs.Core/Validation/WasmValidationContext.cs b/Wacs.Core/Validation/WasmValidationContext.cs
index 100ff6a..071313a 100644
--- a/Wacs.Core/Validation/WasmValidationContext.cs
+++ b/Wacs.Core/Validation/WasmValidationContext.cs
@@ -151,13 +151,15 @@ public void PushControlFrame(ByteCode opCode, FunctionType types)
             OpStack.PushResult(types.ParameterTypes);
         }
 
+        private static Stack<Value> _aside = new();
         public ValidationControlFrame PopControlFrame()
         {
             if (ControlStack.Count == 0)
                 throw new ValidationException("Validation Control Stack underflow");
             
             //Check to make sure we have the correct results, but only if we didn't jump
-            OpStack.PopValues(ControlFrame.EndTypes);
+            OpStack.PopValues(ControlFrame.EndTypes, ref _aside);
+            _aside.Clear();
             
             //Check the stack
             if (OpStack.Height != ControlFrame.Height)