diff --git a/Contributors.md b/Contributors.md
index cddfe747..d474b188 100644
--- a/Contributors.md
+++ b/Contributors.md
@@ -25,4 +25,3 @@ You can request contact information through the project members above, or tag th
 | Andy Smith<br>([@andrewphilipsmith](https://github.com/andrewphilipsmith)) | Research Data Scientist (Turing) | 2022 - 2023 |
 | Daniel van Strien<br>([@davanstrien ](https://github.com/davanstrien)) | Data Librarian (British Library) | 2019-2021 |
 | Olivia Vane<br>([@ov212 ](https://github.com/ov212)) | Research Software Engineer (British Library) | 2019-2021 |
-
diff --git a/mapreader/_version.py b/mapreader/_version.py
index 19b5cac7..40cc6dd5 100644
--- a/mapreader/_version.py
+++ b/mapreader/_version.py
@@ -17,7 +17,7 @@
 import re
 import subprocess
 import sys
-from typing import Callable, Dict
+from typing import Callable
 
 
 def get_keywords():
@@ -55,8 +55,8 @@ class NotThisMethod(Exception):
     """Exception raised if a method is not valid for the current scenario."""
 
 
-LONG_VERSION_PY: Dict[str, str] = {}
-HANDLERS: Dict[str, Dict[str, Callable]] = {}
+LONG_VERSION_PY: dict[str, str] = {}
+HANDLERS: dict[str, dict[str, Callable]] = {}
 
 
 def register_vcs_handler(vcs, method):  # decorator
@@ -107,7 +107,7 @@ def run_command(commands, args, cwd=None, verbose=False, hide_stderr=False, env=
             return None, None
     else:
         if verbose:
-            print("unable to find command, tried %s" % (commands,))
+            print(f"unable to find command, tried {commands}")
         return None, None
     stdout = process.communicate()[0].strip().decode()
     if process.returncode != 0:
@@ -142,8 +142,7 @@ def versions_from_parentdir(parentdir_prefix, root, verbose):
 
     if verbose:
         print(
-            "Tried directories %s but none started with prefix %s"
-            % (str(rootdirs), parentdir_prefix)
+            "Tried directories {} but none started with prefix {}".format(str(rootdirs), parentdir_prefix)
         )
     raise NotThisMethod("rootdir doesn't start with parentdir_prefix")
 
@@ -157,7 +156,7 @@ def git_get_keywords(versionfile_abs):
     # _version.py.
     keywords = {}
     try:
-        with open(versionfile_abs, "r") as fobj:
+        with open(versionfile_abs) as fobj:
             for line in fobj:
                 if line.strip().startswith("git_refnames ="):
                     mo = re.search(r'=\s*"(.*)"', line)
@@ -359,7 +358,7 @@ def git_pieces_from_vcs(tag_prefix, root, verbose, runner=run_command):
             if verbose:
                 fmt = "tag '%s' doesn't start with prefix '%s'"
                 print(fmt % (full_tag, tag_prefix))
-            pieces["error"] = "tag '%s' doesn't start with prefix '%s'" % (
+            pieces["error"] = "tag '{}' doesn't start with prefix '{}'".format(
                 full_tag,
                 tag_prefix,
             )
diff --git a/mapreader/annotate/utils.py b/mapreader/annotate/utils.py
index d14ea4ff..674c78ff 100644
--- a/mapreader/annotate/utils.py
+++ b/mapreader/annotate/utils.py
@@ -1,11 +1,9 @@
 #!/usr/bin/env python
-# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
 from __future__ import annotations
 
 import os
 import random
 import sys
-from typing import Dict, List, Optional, Tuple, Union
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import numpy as np
@@ -30,7 +28,7 @@
 from mapreader import load_patches, loader
 
 
-def display_record(record: Tuple[str, str, str, int, int]) -> None:
+def display_record(record: tuple[str, str, str, int, int]) -> None:
     """
     Displays an image and optionally, a context image with a patch border.
 
@@ -175,13 +173,13 @@ def display_record(record: Tuple[str, str, str, int, int]) -> None:
 
 def prepare_data(
     df: pd.DataFrame,
-    col_names: Optional[List[str]] = None,
-    annotation_set: Optional[str] = "001",
-    label_col_name: Optional[str] = "label",
-    redo: Optional[bool] = False,
-    random_state: Optional[Union[int, str]] = "random",
-    num_samples: Optional[int] = 100,
-) -> List[List[Union[str, int]]]:
+    col_names: list[str] | None = None,
+    annotation_set: str | None = "001",
+    label_col_name: str | None = "label",
+    redo: bool | None = False,
+    random_state: int | str | None = "random",
+    num_samples: int | None = 100,
+) -> list[list[str | int]]:
     """
     Prepare data for image annotation by selecting a subset of images from a
     DataFrame.
@@ -265,12 +263,12 @@ def prepare_data(
 
 
 def annotation_interface(
-    data: List,
-    list_labels: List,
-    list_colors: Optional[List[str]] = None,
-    annotation_set: Optional[str] = "001",
-    method: Optional[str] = "ipyannotate",
-    list_shortcuts: Optional[List[str]] = None,
+    data: list,
+    list_labels: list,
+    list_colors: list[str] | None = None,
+    annotation_set: str | None = "001",
+    method: str | None = "ipyannotate",
+    list_shortcuts: list[str] | None = None,
 ) -> Annotation:
     """
     Create an annotation interface for a list of patches with corresponding
@@ -379,25 +377,25 @@ def prepare_annotation(
     userID: str,
     task: str,
     annotation_tasks_file: str,
-    custom_labels: List[str] = None,
-    annotation_set: Optional[str] = "001",
-    redo_annotation: Optional[bool] = False,
-    patch_paths: Optional[Union[str, bool]] = False,
-    parent_paths: Optional[str] = False,
-    tree_level: Optional[str] = "patch",
-    sortby: Optional[str] = None,
-    min_alpha_channel: Optional[float] = None,
-    min_mean_pixel: Optional[float] = None,
-    max_mean_pixel: Optional[float] = None,
-    min_std_pixel: Optional[float] = None,
-    max_std_pixel: Optional[float] = None,
-    context_image: Optional[bool] = False,
-    xoffset: Optional[int] = 500,
-    yoffset: Optional[int] = 500,
-    urlmain: Optional[str] = "https://maps.nls.uk/view/",
-    random_state: Optional[Union[str, int]] = "random",
-    list_shortcuts: Optional[List[tuple]] = None,
-) -> Dict:
+    custom_labels: list[str] = None,
+    annotation_set: str | None = "001",
+    redo_annotation: bool | None = False,
+    patch_paths: str | bool | None = False,
+    parent_paths: str | None = False,
+    tree_level: str | None = "patch",
+    sortby: str | None = None,
+    min_alpha_channel: float | None = None,
+    min_mean_pixel: float | None = None,
+    max_mean_pixel: float | None = None,
+    min_std_pixel: float | None = None,
+    max_std_pixel: float | None = None,
+    context_image: bool | None = False,
+    xoffset: int | None = 500,
+    yoffset: int | None = 500,
+    urlmain: str | None = "https://maps.nls.uk/view/",
+    random_state: str | int | None = "random",
+    list_shortcuts: list[tuple] | None = None,
+) -> dict:
     """Prepare image data for annotation and launch the annotation interface.
 
     Parameters
diff --git a/mapreader/classify/classifier.py b/mapreader/classify/classifier.py
index 35dce0af..0543973e 100644
--- a/mapreader/classify/classifier.py
+++ b/mapreader/classify/classifier.py
@@ -1,5 +1,4 @@
 #!/usr/bin/env python
-# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
 from __future__ import annotations
 
 import copy
@@ -9,7 +8,7 @@
 import sys
 import time
 from datetime import datetime
-from typing import Any, Dict, Hashable, Iterable, List, Optional, Tuple, Union
+from typing import Any, Hashable, Iterable
 
 import joblib
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
@@ -33,14 +32,14 @@
 class ClassifierContainer:
     def __init__(
         self,
-        model: Union[str, nn.Module, None],
-        dataloaders: Union[Dict[str, DataLoader], None],
-        labels_map: Union[Dict[int, str], None],
-        device: Optional[str] = "default",
-        input_size: Optional[int] = (224, 224),
-        is_inception: Optional[bool] = False,
-        load_path: Optional[str] = None,
-        force_device: Optional[bool] = False,
+        model: str | (nn.Module | None),
+        dataloaders: dict[str, DataLoader] | None,
+        labels_map: dict[int, str] | None,
+        device: str | None = "default",
+        input_size: int | None = (224, 224),
+        is_inception: bool | None = False,
+        load_path: str | None = None,
+        force_device: bool | None = False,
         **kwargs,
     ):
         """
@@ -181,8 +180,8 @@ def generate_layerwise_lrs(
         self,
         min_lr: float,
         max_lr: float,
-        spacing: Optional[str] = "linspace",
-    ) -> List[Dict]:
+        spacing: str | None = "linspace",
+    ) -> list[dict]:
         """
         Calculates layer-wise learning rates for a given set of model
         parameters.
@@ -224,11 +223,11 @@ def generate_layerwise_lrs(
 
     def initialize_optimizer(
         self,
-        optim_type: Optional[str] = "adam",
-        params2optimize: Optional[Union[str, Iterable]] = "infer",
-        optim_param_dict: Optional[dict] = None,
-        add_optim: Optional[bool] = True,
-    ) -> Union[torch.optim.Optimizer, None]:
+        optim_type: str | None = "adam",
+        params2optimize: str | Iterable | None = "infer",
+        optim_param_dict: dict | None = None,
+        add_optim: bool | None = True,
+    ) -> torch.optim.Optimizer | None:
         """
         Initializes an optimizer for the model and adds it to the classifier
         object.
@@ -309,10 +308,10 @@ def add_optimizer(self, optimizer: torch.optim.Optimizer) -> None:
 
     def initialize_scheduler(
         self,
-        scheduler_type: Optional[str] = "steplr",
-        scheduler_param_dict: Optional[dict] = None,
-        add_scheduler: Optional[bool] = True,
-    ) -> Union[torch.optim.lr_scheduler._LRScheduler, None]:
+        scheduler_type: str | None = "steplr",
+        scheduler_param_dict: dict | None = None,
+        add_scheduler: bool | None = True,
+    ) -> torch.optim.lr_scheduler._LRScheduler | None:
         """
         Initializes a learning rate scheduler for the optimizer and adds it to
         the classifier object.
@@ -394,7 +393,7 @@ def add_scheduler(self, scheduler: torch.optim.lr_scheduler._LRScheduler) -> Non
         self.scheduler = scheduler
 
     def add_criterion(
-        self, criterion: Optional[Union[str, nn.modules.loss._Loss]] = "cross entropy"
+        self, criterion: str | nn.modules.loss._Loss | None = "cross entropy"
     ) -> None:
         """
         Add a loss criterion to the classifier object.
@@ -444,8 +443,8 @@ def add_criterion(
 
     def model_summary(
         self,
-        input_size: Optional[Union[tuple, list]] = None,
-        trainable_col: Optional[bool] = False,
+        input_size: tuple | list | None = None,
+        trainable_col: bool | None = False,
         **kwargs,
     ) -> None:
         """
@@ -498,7 +497,7 @@ def model_summary(
         )
         print(model_summary)
 
-    def freeze_layers(self, layers_to_freeze: Optional[List[str]] = None) -> None:
+    def freeze_layers(self, layers_to_freeze: list[str] | None = None) -> None:
         """
         Freezes the specified layers in the neural network by setting
         ``requires_grad`` attribute to False for their parameters.
@@ -532,7 +531,7 @@ def freeze_layers(self, layers_to_freeze: Optional[List[str]] = None) -> None:
                 elif (layer[-1] != "*") and (layer == name):
                     param.requires_grad = False
 
-    def unfreeze_layers(self, layers_to_unfreeze: Optional[List[str]] = None):
+    def unfreeze_layers(self, layers_to_unfreeze: list[str] | None = None):
         """
         Unfreezes the specified layers in the neural network by setting
         ``requires_grad`` attribute to True for their parameters.
@@ -567,7 +566,7 @@ def unfreeze_layers(self, layers_to_unfreeze: Optional[List[str]] = None):
                     param.requires_grad = True
 
     def only_keep_layers(
-        self, only_keep_layers_list: Optional[List[str]] = None
+        self, only_keep_layers_list: list[str] | None = None
     ) -> None:
         """
         Only keep the specified layers (``only_keep_layers_list``) for
@@ -595,9 +594,9 @@ def only_keep_layers(
 
     def inference(
         self,
-        set_name: Optional[str] = "infer",
-        verbose: Optional[bool] = False,
-        print_info_batch_freq: Optional[int] = 5,
+        set_name: str | None = "infer",
+        verbose: bool | None = False,
+        print_info_batch_freq: int | None = 5,
     ):
         """
         Run inference on a specified dataset (``set_name``).
@@ -656,14 +655,14 @@ def train_component_summary(self) -> None:
 
     def train(
         self,
-        phases: Optional[List[str]] = None,
-        num_epochs: Optional[int] = 25,
-        save_model_dir: Optional[Union[str, None]] = "models",
-        verbose: Optional[bool] = False,
-        tensorboard_path: Optional[Union[str, None]] = None,
-        tmp_file_save_freq: Optional[Union[int, None]] = 2,
-        remove_after_load: Optional[bool] = True,
-        print_info_batch_freq: Optional[Union[int, None]] = 5,
+        phases: list[str] | None = None,
+        num_epochs: int | None = 25,
+        save_model_dir: str | None | None = "models",
+        verbose: bool | None = False,
+        tensorboard_path: str | None | None = None,
+        tmp_file_save_freq: int | None | None = 2,
+        remove_after_load: bool | None = True,
+        print_info_batch_freq: int | None | None = 5,
     ) -> None:
         """
         Train the model on the specified phases for a given number of epochs.
@@ -737,13 +736,13 @@ def train(
 
     def train_core(
         self,
-        phases: Optional[List[str]] = None,
-        num_epochs: Optional[int] = 25,
-        save_model_dir: Optional[Union[str, None]] = "models",
-        verbose: Optional[bool] = False,
-        tensorboard_path: Optional[Union[str, None]] = None,
-        tmp_file_save_freq: Optional[Union[int, None]] = 2,
-        print_info_batch_freq: Optional[Union[int, None]] = 5,
+        phases: list[str] | None = None,
+        num_epochs: int | None = 25,
+        save_model_dir: str | None | None = "models",
+        verbose: bool | None = False,
+        tensorboard_path: str | None | None = None,
+        tmp_file_save_freq: int | None | None = 2,
+        print_info_batch_freq: int | None | None = 5,
     ) -> None:
         """
         Trains/fine-tunes a classifier for the specified number of epochs on
@@ -1057,7 +1056,7 @@ def calculate_add_metrics(
         y_pred,
         y_score,
         phase: str,
-        epoch: Optional[int] = -1,
+        epoch: int | None = -1,
         tboard_writer=None,
     ) -> None:
         """
@@ -1209,7 +1208,7 @@ def _gen_epoch_msg(self, phase: str, epoch_msg: str) -> str:
         return epoch_msg
 
     def _add_metrics(
-        self, k: Hashable, v: Union[int, float, complex, np.number]
+        self, k: Hashable, v: int | (float | (complex | np.number))
     ) -> None:
         """
         Adds a metric value to a dictionary of metrics tracked during training.
@@ -1240,17 +1239,17 @@ def _add_metrics(
 
     def plot_metric(
         self,
-        y_axis: List[str],
+        y_axis: list[str],
         y_label: str,
-        legends: List[str],
-        x_axis: Optional[str] = "epoch",
-        x_label: Optional[str] = "epoch",
-        colors: Optional[List[str]] = 5 * ["k", "tab:red"],
-        styles: Optional[List[str]] = 10 * ["-"],
-        markers: Optional[List[str]] = 10 * ["o"],
-        figsize: Optional[Tuple[int, int]] = (10, 5),
-        plt_yrange: Optional[Tuple[float, float]] = None,
-        plt_xrange: Optional[Tuple[float, float]] = None,
+        legends: list[str],
+        x_axis: str | None = "epoch",
+        x_label: str | None = "epoch",
+        colors: list[str] | None = 5 * ["k", "tab:red"],
+        styles: list[str] | None = 10 * ["-"],
+        markers: list[str] | None = 10 * ["o"],
+        figsize: tuple[int, int] | None = (10, 5),
+        plt_yrange: tuple[float, float] | None = None,
+        plt_xrange: tuple[float, float] | None = None,
     ):
         """
         Plot the metrics of the classifier object.
@@ -1360,9 +1359,9 @@ def plot_metric(
     def _initialize_model(
         self,
         model_name: str,
-        pretrained: Optional[bool] = True,
-        last_layer_num_classes: Optional[Union[str, int]] = "default",
-    ) -> Tuple[Any, int, bool]:
+        pretrained: bool | None = True,
+        last_layer_num_classes: str | int | None = "default",
+    ) -> tuple[Any, int, bool]:
         """
         Initializes a PyTorch model with the option to change the number of
         classes in the last layer (``last_layer_num_classes``).
@@ -1458,10 +1457,10 @@ def _initialize_model(
 
     def show_sample(
         self,
-        set_name: Optional[str] = "train",
-        batch_number: Optional[int] = 1,
-        print_batch_info: Optional[bool] = True,
-        figsize: Optional[Tuple[int, int]] = (15, 10),
+        set_name: str | None = "train",
+        batch_number: int | None = 1,
+        print_batch_info: bool | None = True,
+        figsize: tuple[int, int] | None = (15, 10),
     ):
         """
         Displays a sample of training or validation data in a grid format with
@@ -1530,7 +1529,7 @@ def show_sample(
             figsize=figsize,
         )
 
-    def print_batch_info(self, set_name: Optional[str] = "train") -> None:
+    def print_batch_info(self, set_name: str | None = "train") -> None:
         """
         Print information about a dataset's batches, samples, and batch-size.
 
@@ -1563,8 +1562,8 @@ def print_batch_info(self, set_name: Optional[str] = "train") -> None:
     @staticmethod
     def _imshow(
         inp: np.ndarray,
-        title: Optional[str] = None,
-        figsize: Optional[Tuple[int, int]] = (15, 10),
+        title: str | None = None,
+        figsize: tuple[int, int] | None = (15, 10),
     ) -> None:
         """
         Displays an image of a tensor using matplotlib.pyplot.
@@ -1603,11 +1602,11 @@ def _imshow(
     def show_inference_sample_results(
         self,
         label: str,
-        num_samples: Optional[int] = 6,
-        set_name: Optional[str] = "test",
-        min_conf: Optional[Union[None, float]] = None,
-        max_conf: Optional[Union[None, float]] = None,
-        figsize: Optional[Tuple[int, int]] = (15, 15),
+        num_samples: int | None = 6,
+        set_name: str | None = "test",
+        min_conf: None | float | None = None,
+        max_conf: None | float | None = None,
+        figsize: tuple[int, int] | None = (15, 15),
     ) -> None:
         """
         Shows a sample of the results of the inference.
@@ -1698,8 +1697,8 @@ def show_inference_sample_results(
 
     def save(
         self,
-        save_path: Optional[str] = "default.obj",
-        force: Optional[bool] = False,
+        save_path: str | None = "default.obj",
+        force: bool | None = False,
     ) -> None:
         """
         Save the object to a file.
@@ -1757,10 +1756,10 @@ def load_dataset(
         self,
         dataset: PatchDataset,
         set_name: str,
-        batch_size: Optional[int] = 16,
-        sampler: Optional[Union[Sampler, None]] = None,
-        shuffle: Optional[bool] = False,
-        num_workers: Optional[int] = 0,
+        batch_size: int | None = 16,
+        sampler: Sampler | None | None = None,
+        shuffle: bool | None = False,
+        num_workers: int | None = 0,
         **kwargs,
     ) -> None:
         """Creates a DataLoader from a PatchDataset and adds it to the ``dataloaders`` dictionary.
@@ -1797,7 +1796,7 @@ def load_dataset(
     def load(
         self,
         load_path: str,
-        force_device: Optional[bool] = False,
+        force_device: bool | None = False,
     ) -> None:
         """
         This function loads the state of a class instance from a saved file
@@ -1928,9 +1927,9 @@ def cprint(self, type_info: str, bc_color: str, text: str) -> None:
 
     def update_progress(
         self,
-        progress: Union[float, int],
-        text: Optional[str] = "",
-        barLength: Optional[int] = 30,
+        progress: float | int,
+        text: str | None = "",
+        barLength: int | None = 30,
     ) -> None:
         """Update the progress bar.
 
diff --git a/mapreader/classify/classifier_context.py b/mapreader/classify/classifier_context.py
index ef7814af..83ab0ac4 100644
--- a/mapreader/classify/classifier_context.py
+++ b/mapreader/classify/classifier_context.py
@@ -1,5 +1,4 @@
 #!/usr/bin/env python
-# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
 from __future__ import annotations
 
 import copy
@@ -7,8 +6,6 @@
 import time
 
 # from tqdm.autonotebook import tqdm
-from typing import Dict, List, Optional, Tuple, Union
-
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import numpy as np
 import torch
@@ -20,14 +17,14 @@
 class ClassifierContextContainer(ClassifierContainer):
     def train(
         self,
-        phases: Optional[List[str]] = None,
-        num_epochs: Optional[int] = 25,
-        save_model_dir: Optional[Union[str, None]] = "models",
-        verbosity_level: Optional[int] = 1,
-        tensorboard_path: Optional[Union[str, None]] = None,
-        tmp_file_save_freq: Optional[Union[int, None]] = 2,
-        remove_after_load: Optional[bool] = True,
-        print_info_batch_freq: Optional[Union[int, None]] = 5,
+        phases: list[str] | None = None,
+        num_epochs: int | None = 25,
+        save_model_dir: str | None | None = "models",
+        verbosity_level: int | None = 1,
+        tensorboard_path: str | None | None = None,
+        tmp_file_save_freq: int | None | None = 2,
+        remove_after_load: bool | None = True,
+        print_info_batch_freq: int | None | None = 5,
     ) -> None:
         """
         Train the model on the specified phases for a given number of epochs.
@@ -99,13 +96,13 @@ def train(
 
     def train_core(
         self,
-        phases: Optional[List[str]] = None,
-        num_epochs: Optional[int] = 25,
-        save_model_dir: Optional[Union[str, None]] = "models",
-        verbosity_level: Optional[int] = 1,
-        tensorboard_path: Optional[Union[str, None]] = None,
-        tmp_file_save_freq: Optional[Union[int, None]] = 2,
-        print_info_batch_freq: Optional[Union[int, None]] = 5,
+        phases: list[str] | None = None,
+        num_epochs: int | None = 25,
+        save_model_dir: str | None | None = "models",
+        verbosity_level: int | None = 1,
+        tensorboard_path: str | None | None = None,
+        tmp_file_save_freq: int | None | None = 2,
+        print_info_batch_freq: int | None | None = 5,
     ) -> None:
         """
         Trains/fine-tunes a classifier for the specified number of epochs on
@@ -423,10 +420,10 @@ def train_core(
 
     def show_sample(
         self,
-        set_name: Optional[str] = "train",
-        batch_number: Optional[int] = 1,
-        print_batch_info: Optional[bool] = True,
-        figsize: Optional[Tuple[int, int]] = (15, 10),
+        set_name: str | None = "train",
+        batch_number: int | None = 1,
+        print_batch_info: bool | None = True,
+        figsize: tuple[int, int] | None = (15, 10),
     ) -> None:
         """
         Displays a sample of training or validation data in a grid format with
@@ -506,9 +503,9 @@ def generate_layerwise_lrs(
         self,
         min_lr: float,
         max_lr: float,
-        spacing: Optional[str] = "linspace",
-        sep_group_names: List[str] = None,
-    ) -> List[Dict]:
+        spacing: str | None = "linspace",
+        sep_group_names: list[str] = None,
+    ) -> list[dict]:
         """
         Calculates layer-wise learning rates for a given set of model
         parameters.
@@ -570,11 +567,11 @@ def generate_layerwise_lrs(
     def show_inference_sample_results(
         self,
         label: str,
-        num_samples: Optional[int] = 6,
-        set_name: Optional[str] = "train",
-        min_conf: Optional[Union[None, float]] = None,
-        max_conf: Optional[Union[None, float]] = None,
-        figsize: Optional[Tuple[int, int]] = (15, 15),
+        num_samples: int | None = 6,
+        set_name: str | None = "train",
+        min_conf: None | float | None = None,
+        max_conf: None | float | None = None,
+        figsize: tuple[int, int] | None = (15, 15),
     ) -> None:
         """
         Shows a sample of the results of the inference.
diff --git a/mapreader/classify/custom_models.py b/mapreader/classify/custom_models.py
index 1996937d..69072594 100644
--- a/mapreader/classify/custom_models.py
+++ b/mapreader/classify/custom_models.py
@@ -1,5 +1,4 @@
 #!/usr/bin/env python
-# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
 from __future__ import annotations
 
 import torch
@@ -30,7 +29,7 @@ def __init__(
         fc_layer : nn.Linear
             The fully connected layer at the end of the model.
         """
-        super(twoParallelModels, self).__init__()
+        super().__init__()
         self.features1 = feature1
         self.features2 = feature2
         self.fc_layer = fc_layer
diff --git a/mapreader/classify/datasets.py b/mapreader/classify/datasets.py
index d0f2a334..3fee2e4d 100644
--- a/mapreader/classify/datasets.py
+++ b/mapreader/classify/datasets.py
@@ -1,9 +1,8 @@
 #!/usr/bin/env python
-# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
 from __future__ import annotations
 
 import os
-from typing import Callable, Optional, Tuple, Union
+from typing import Callable
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import numpy as np
@@ -28,13 +27,13 @@
 class PatchDataset(Dataset):
     def __init__(
         self,
-        patch_df: Union[pd.DataFrame, str],
-        transform: Union[str, transforms.Compose, Callable],
+        patch_df: pd.DataFrame | str,
+        transform: str | (transforms.Compose | Callable),
         delimiter: str = ",",
-        patch_paths_col: Optional[str] = "image_path",
-        label_col: Optional[str] = None,
-        label_index_col: Optional[str] = None,
-        image_mode: Optional[str] = "RGB",
+        patch_paths_col: str | None = "image_path",
+        label_col: str | None = None,
+        label_index_col: str | None = None,
+        image_mode: str | None = "RGB",
     ):
         """A PyTorch Dataset class for loading image patches from a DataFrame.
 
@@ -165,8 +164,8 @@ def __len__(self) -> int:
         return len(self.patch_df)
 
     def __getitem__(
-        self, idx: Union[int, torch.Tensor]
-    ) -> Tuple[torch.Tensor, str, int]:
+        self, idx: int | torch.Tensor
+    ) -> tuple[torch.Tensor, str, int]:
         """
         Return the image, its label and the index of that label at the given index in the dataset.
 
@@ -211,7 +210,7 @@ def __getitem__(
 
         return img, image_label, image_label_index
 
-    def return_orig_image(self, idx: Union[int, torch.Tensor]) -> Image:
+    def return_orig_image(self, idx: int | torch.Tensor) -> Image:
         """
         Return the original image associated with the given index.
 
@@ -251,8 +250,8 @@ def return_orig_image(self, idx: Union[int, torch.Tensor]) -> Image:
 
     def _default_transform(
         self,
-        t_type: Optional[str] = "train",
-        resize: Optional[Union[int, Tuple[int, int]]] = (224, 224),
+        t_type: str | None = "train",
+        resize: int | tuple[int, int] | None = (224, 224),
     ) -> transforms.Compose:
         """
         Returns the default image transformations for the train, test and validation sets as a transforms.Compose.
@@ -330,20 +329,20 @@ def _get_label_index(self, label: str) -> int:
 class PatchContextDataset(PatchDataset):
     def __init__(
         self,
-        patch_df: Union[pd.DataFrame, str],
+        patch_df: pd.DataFrame | str,
         transform1: str,
         transform2: str,
         delimiter: str = ",",
-        patch_paths_col: Optional[str] = "image_path",
-        label_col: Optional[str] = None,
-        label_index_col: Optional[str] = None,
-        image_mode: Optional[str] = "RGB",
-        context_save_path: Optional[str] = "./maps/maps_context",
-        create_context: Optional[bool] = False,
-        parent_path: Optional[str] = "./maps",
-        x_offset: Optional[float] = 1.0,
-        y_offset: Optional[float] = 1.0,
-        slice_method: Optional[str] = "scale",
+        patch_paths_col: str | None = "image_path",
+        label_col: str | None = None,
+        label_index_col: str | None = None,
+        image_mode: str | None = "RGB",
+        context_save_path: str | None = "./maps/maps_context",
+        create_context: bool | None = False,
+        parent_path: str | None = "./maps",
+        x_offset: float | None = 1.0,
+        y_offset: float | None = 1.0,
+        slice_method: str | None = "scale",
     ):
         """
         A PyTorch Dataset class for loading contextual information about image
@@ -504,12 +503,12 @@ def __init__(
 
     def save_parents(
         self,
-        processors: Optional[int] = 10,
-        sleep_time: Optional[float] = 0.001,
-        use_parhugin: Optional[bool] = True,
-        parent_delimiter: Optional[str] = "#",
-        loc_delimiter: Optional[str] = "-",
-        overwrite: Optional[bool] = False,
+        processors: int | None = 10,
+        sleep_time: float | None = 0.001,
+        use_parhugin: bool | None = True,
+        parent_delimiter: str | None = "#",
+        loc_delimiter: str | None = "-",
+        overwrite: bool | None = False,
     ) -> None:
         """
         Save parent patches for all patches in the patch_df.
@@ -570,10 +569,10 @@ def save_parents(
     def save_parents_idx(
         self,
         idx: int,
-        parent_delimiter: Optional[str] = "#",
-        loc_delimiter: Optional[str] = "-",
-        overwrite: Optional[bool] = False,
-        return_image: Optional[bool] = False,
+        parent_delimiter: str | None = "#",
+        loc_delimiter: str | None = "-",
+        overwrite: bool | None = False,
+        return_image: bool | None = False,
     ) -> None:
         """
         Save the parents of a specific patch to the specified location.
@@ -719,8 +718,8 @@ def plot_sample(self, idx: int) -> None:
         plt.show()
 
     def __getitem__(
-        self, idx: Union[int, torch.Tensor]
-    ) -> Tuple[torch.Tensor, torch.Tensor, str, int]:
+        self, idx: int | torch.Tensor
+    ) -> tuple[torch.Tensor, torch.Tensor, str, int]:
         """
         Retrieves the patch image, the context image and the label at the
         given index in the dataset (``idx``).
diff --git a/mapreader/classify/load_annotations.py b/mapreader/classify/load_annotations.py
index d01a1e90..51590a24 100644
--- a/mapreader/classify/load_annotations.py
+++ b/mapreader/classify/load_annotations.py
@@ -1,10 +1,9 @@
 #!/usr/bin/env python
-# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
 from __future__ import annotations
 
 import os
 from decimal import Decimal
-from typing import Callable, Optional, Union
+from typing import Callable
 
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
 import numpy as np
@@ -32,17 +31,17 @@ def __init__(self):
 
     def load(
         self,
-        annotations: Union[str, pd.DataFrame],
-        delimiter: Optional[str] = ",",
-        images_dir: Optional[str] = None,
-        remove_broken: Optional[bool] = True,
-        ignore_broken: Optional[bool] = False,
-        id_col: Optional[str] = "image_id",
-        patch_paths_col: Optional[str] = "image_path",
-        label_col: Optional[str] = "label",
-        append: Optional[bool] = True,
-        scramble_frame: Optional[bool] = False,
-        reset_index: Optional[bool] = False,
+        annotations: str | pd.DataFrame,
+        delimiter: str | None = ",",
+        images_dir: str | None = None,
+        remove_broken: bool | None = True,
+        ignore_broken: bool | None = False,
+        id_col: str | None = "image_id",
+        patch_paths_col: str | None = "image_path",
+        label_col: str | None = "label",
+        append: bool | None = True,
+        scramble_frame: bool | None = False,
+        reset_index: bool | None = False,
     ):
         """Loads annotations from a csv file or dataframe and can be used to set the ``id_col``, ``patch_paths_col`` and ``label_col`` attributes.
 
@@ -150,9 +149,9 @@ def load(
     def _load_annotations_csv(
         self,
         annotations: str,
-        delimiter: Optional[str] = ",",
-        scramble_frame: Optional[bool] = False,
-        reset_index: Optional[bool] = False,
+        delimiter: str | None = ",",
+        scramble_frame: bool | None = False,
+        reset_index: bool | None = False,
     ) -> pd.DataFrame:
         """Loads annotations from a csv file.
 
@@ -194,8 +193,8 @@ def _load_annotations_csv(
 
     def _check_patch_paths(
         self,
-        remove_broken: Optional[bool] = True,
-        ignore_broken: Optional[bool] = False,
+        remove_broken: bool | None = True,
+        ignore_broken: bool | None = False,
     ) -> None:
         """
         Checks the file paths of annotations and manages broken paths.
@@ -301,12 +300,12 @@ def print_unique_labels(self) -> None:
 
     def review_labels(
         self,
-        label_to_review: Optional[str] = None,
-        chunks: Optional[int] = 8 * 3,
-        num_cols: Optional[int] = 8,
-        exclude_df: Optional[pd.DataFrame] = None,
-        include_df: Optional[pd.DataFrame] = None,
-        deduplicate_col: Optional[str] = "image_id",
+        label_to_review: str | None = None,
+        chunks: int | None = 8 * 3,
+        num_cols: int | None = 8,
+        exclude_df: pd.DataFrame | None = None,
+        include_df: pd.DataFrame | None = None,
+        deduplicate_col: str | None = "image_id",
     ) -> None:
         """
         Perform image review on annotations and update labels for a given
@@ -456,7 +455,7 @@ def review_labels(
 
         print("[INFO] Exited.")
 
-    def show_sample(self, label_to_show: str, num_samples: Optional[int] = 9) -> None:
+    def show_sample(self, label_to_show: str, num_samples: int | None = 9) -> None:
         """Show a random sample of images with the specified label (tar_label).
 
         Parameters
@@ -498,13 +497,13 @@ def show_sample(self, label_to_show: str, num_samples: Optional[int] = 9) -> Non
 
     def create_datasets(
         self,
-        frac_train: Optional[float] = 0.70,
-        frac_val: Optional[float] = 0.15,
-        frac_test: Optional[float] = 0.15,
-        random_state: Optional[int] = 1364,
-        train_transform: Optional[Union[str, Compose, Callable]] = "train",
-        val_transform: Optional[Union[str, Compose, Callable]] = "val",
-        test_transform: Optional[Union[str, Compose, Callable]] = "test",
+        frac_train: float | None = 0.70,
+        frac_val: float | None = 0.15,
+        frac_test: float | None = 0.15,
+        random_state: int | None = 1364,
+        train_transform: str | (Compose | Callable) | None = "train",
+        val_transform: str | (Compose | Callable) | None = "val",
+        test_transform: str | (Compose | Callable) | None = "test",
     ) -> None:
         """
         Splits the dataset into three subsets: training, validation, and test sets (DataFrames) and saves them as a dictionary in ``self.datasets``.
@@ -642,10 +641,10 @@ def create_datasets(
 
     def create_dataloaders(
         self,
-        batch_size: Optional[int] = 16,
-        sampler: Optional[Union[Sampler, str, None]] = "default",
-        shuffle: Optional[bool] = False,
-        num_workers: Optional[int] = 0,
+        batch_size: int | None = 16,
+        sampler: Sampler | (str | None) | None = "default",
+        shuffle: bool | None = False,
+        num_workers: int | None = 0,
         **kwargs,
     ) -> None:
         """Creates a dictionary containing PyTorch dataloaders
diff --git a/mapreader/download/data_structures.py b/mapreader/download/data_structures.py
index 56cb3ad1..9115057b 100644
--- a/mapreader/download/data_structures.py
+++ b/mapreader/download/data_structures.py
@@ -20,7 +20,7 @@ def __init__(self, lat: float, lon: float):
         self.lon = lon
 
     def __str__(self):
-        return "({lat}, {lon})".format(lat=self.lat, lon=self.lon)
+        return f"({self.lat}, {self.lon})"
 
     def __repr__(self):
         return str(self)
@@ -45,7 +45,7 @@ def __init__(self, x: int, y: int, z: int):
         self.z = z
 
     def __str__(self):
-        return "({z}, {x}, {y})".format(z=self.z, x=self.x, y=self.y)
+        return f"({self.z}, {self.x}, {self.y})"
 
     def __repr__(self):
         return str(self)
@@ -85,7 +85,7 @@ def y_range(self):
         return range(self.lower_corner.y, self.upper_corner.y + 1)
 
     def __str__(self):
-        return "[{p1}x{p2}]".format(p1=self.lower_corner, p2=self.upper_corner)
+        return f"[{self.lower_corner}x{self.upper_corner}]"
 
     def __repr__(self):
         return str(self)
diff --git a/mapreader/download/downloader.py b/mapreader/download/downloader.py
index 1e1fd278..e1ede5d0 100644
--- a/mapreader/download/downloader.py
+++ b/mapreader/download/downloader.py
@@ -2,7 +2,6 @@
 
 import os
 import shutil
-from typing import Optional, Union
 
 from shapely.geometry import Polygon
 
@@ -19,7 +18,7 @@ class Downloader:
 
     def __init__(
         self,
-        download_url: Union[str, list],
+        download_url: str | list,
     ):
         """Initialise Downloader object.
 
@@ -111,9 +110,9 @@ def _download_map(self, grid_bb: GridBoundingBox) -> bool:
     def download_map_by_polygon(
         self,
         polygon: Polygon,
-        zoom_level: Optional[int] = 14,
-        path_save: Optional[str] = "maps",
-        overwrite: Optional[bool] = False,
+        zoom_level: int | None = 14,
+        path_save: str | None = "maps",
+        overwrite: bool | None = False,
     ) -> None:
         """
         Downloads a map contained within a polygon.
diff --git a/mapreader/download/downloader_utils.py b/mapreader/download/downloader_utils.py
index ad90d108..f86bdbb2 100644
--- a/mapreader/download/downloader_utils.py
+++ b/mapreader/download/downloader_utils.py
@@ -1,7 +1,6 @@
 from __future__ import annotations
 
 import math
-from typing import Tuple
 
 from shapely.geometry import LineString, Polygon, box
 
@@ -99,19 +98,15 @@ def get_polygon_from_grid_bb(grid_bb: GridBoundingBox):
     -------
     shapely.Polygon
     """
-    lower_corner = grid_bb.lower_corner # SW
-    upper_corner = grid_bb.upper_corner # SW
+    lower_corner = grid_bb.lower_corner  # SW
+    upper_corner = grid_bb.upper_corner  # SW
 
     # for NE corner of upper right tile, do x+1 and y+1
-    upper_corner_NE = GridIndex(
-        upper_corner.x + 1, 
-        upper_corner.y + 1, 
-        upper_corner.z
-        )
+    upper_corner_NE = GridIndex(upper_corner.x + 1, upper_corner.y + 1, upper_corner.z)
 
-    SW_coord = get_coordinate_from_index(lower_corner) 
+    SW_coord = get_coordinate_from_index(lower_corner)
     NE_coord = get_coordinate_from_index(upper_corner_NE)
-    
+
     polygon = create_polygon_from_latlons(
         SW_coord.lat, SW_coord.lon, NE_coord.lat, NE_coord.lon
     )
@@ -160,7 +155,7 @@ def get_coordinate_from_index(grid_index: GridIndex) -> Coordinate:
     return Coordinate(lat, lon)
 
 
-def _get_index_from_coordinate(lon: float, lat: float, z: int) -> Tuple[(int, int)]:
+def _get_index_from_coordinate(lon: float, lat: float, z: int) -> tuple[(int, int)]:
     """Generate (x,y) tuple from Coordinate latitudes and longitudes.
 
     Returns
@@ -176,7 +171,7 @@ def _get_index_from_coordinate(lon: float, lat: float, z: int) -> Tuple[(int, in
     return x, y
 
 
-def _get_coordinate_from_index(x: int, y: int, z: int) -> Tuple[(float, float)]:
+def _get_coordinate_from_index(x: int, y: int, z: int) -> tuple[(float, float)]:
     """Generate (lon, lat) tuple from GridIndex x, y and zoom level (z).
 
     Returns
diff --git a/mapreader/download/sheet_downloader.py b/mapreader/download/sheet_downloader.py
index 845b96fe..a47c44a7 100644
--- a/mapreader/download/sheet_downloader.py
+++ b/mapreader/download/sheet_downloader.py
@@ -5,7 +5,6 @@
 import re
 import shutil
 from functools import reduce
-from typing import Optional, Union
 
 import matplotlib.image as mpimg
 import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
@@ -31,7 +30,7 @@ class SheetDownloader:
     def __init__(
         self,
         metadata_path: str,
-        download_url: Union[str, list],
+        download_url: str | list,
     ) -> None:
         """
         Initialize SheetDownloader class
@@ -57,7 +56,7 @@ def __init__(
         ), "[ERROR] Please pass metadata_path as string."
 
         if os.path.isfile(metadata_path):
-            with open(metadata_path, "r") as f:
+            with open(metadata_path) as f:
                 self.metadata = json.load(f)
                 self.features = self.metadata["features"]
                 print(self.__str__())
@@ -99,7 +98,7 @@ def get_polygons(self) -> None:
 
         self.polygons = True
 
-    def get_grid_bb(self, zoom_level: Optional[int] = 14) -> None:
+    def get_grid_bb(self, zoom_level: int | None = 14) -> None:
         """
         For each map in metadata, creates a grid bounding box from map polygons and saves to ``features`` dictionary.
 
@@ -189,9 +188,9 @@ def get_minmax_latlon(self) -> None:
     ## queries
     def query_map_sheets_by_wfs_ids(
         self,
-        wfs_ids: Union[list, int],
-        append: Optional[bool] = False,
-        print: Optional[bool] = False,
+        wfs_ids: list | int,
+        append: bool | None = False,
+        print: bool | None = False,
     ) -> None:
         """
         Find map sheets by WFS ID numbers.
@@ -233,9 +232,9 @@ def query_map_sheets_by_wfs_ids(
     def query_map_sheets_by_polygon(
         self,
         polygon: Polygon,
-        mode: Optional[str] = "within",
-        append: Optional[bool] = False,
-        print: Optional[bool] = False,
+        mode: str | None = "within",
+        append: bool | None = False,
+        print: bool | None = False,
     ) -> None:
         """
         Find map sheets which are found within or intersecting with a defined polygon.
@@ -295,8 +294,8 @@ def query_map_sheets_by_polygon(
     def query_map_sheets_by_coordinates(
         self,
         coords: tuple,
-        append: Optional[bool] = False,
-        print: Optional[bool] = False,
+        append: bool | None = False,
+        print: bool | None = False,
     ) -> None:
         """
         Find maps sheets which contain a defined set of coordinates.
@@ -337,8 +336,8 @@ def query_map_sheets_by_coordinates(
     def query_map_sheets_by_line(
         self,
         line: LineString,
-        append: Optional[bool] = False,
-        print: Optional[bool] = False,
+        append: bool | None = False,
+        print: bool | None = False,
     ) -> None:
         """
         Find maps sheets which intersect with a line.
@@ -384,9 +383,9 @@ def query_map_sheets_by_line(
     def query_map_sheets_by_string(
         self,
         string: str,
-        keys: Union[str, list] = None,
-        append: Optional[bool] = False,
-        print: Optional[bool] = False,
+        keys: str | list = None,
+        append: bool | None = False,
+        print: bool | None = False,
     ) -> None:
         """
         Find map sheets by searching for a string in a chosen metadata field.
@@ -585,9 +584,9 @@ def _save_metadata(
     def _download_map_sheets(
         self,
         features: list,
-        path_save: Optional[str] = "maps",
-        metadata_fname: Optional[str] = "metadata.csv",
-        overwrite: Optional[bool] = False,
+        path_save: str | None = "maps",
+        metadata_fname: str | None = "metadata.csv",
+        overwrite: bool | None = False,
     ):
         """Download map sheets from a list of features.
 
@@ -614,9 +613,9 @@ def _download_map_sheets(
 
     def download_all_map_sheets(
         self,
-        path_save: Optional[str] = "maps",
-        metadata_fname: Optional[str] = "metadata.csv",
-        overwrite: Optional[bool] = False,
+        path_save: str | None = "maps",
+        metadata_fname: str | None = "metadata.csv",
+        overwrite: bool | None = False,
     ) -> None:
         """
         Downloads all map sheets in metadata.
@@ -641,10 +640,10 @@ def download_all_map_sheets(
 
     def download_map_sheets_by_wfs_ids(
         self,
-        wfs_ids: Union[list, int],
-        path_save: Optional[str] = "maps",
-        metadata_fname: Optional[str] = "metadata.csv",
-        overwrite: Optional[bool] = False,
+        wfs_ids: list | int,
+        path_save: str | None = "maps",
+        metadata_fname: str | None = "metadata.csv",
+        overwrite: bool | None = False,
     ) -> None:
         """
         Downloads map sheets by WFS ID numbers.
@@ -692,10 +691,10 @@ def download_map_sheets_by_wfs_ids(
     def download_map_sheets_by_polygon(
         self,
         polygon: Polygon,
-        path_save: Optional[str] = "maps",
-        metadata_fname: Optional[str] = "metadata.csv",
-        mode: Optional[str] = "within",
-        overwrite: Optional[bool] = False,
+        path_save: str | None = "maps",
+        metadata_fname: str | None = "metadata.csv",
+        mode: str | None = "within",
+        overwrite: bool | None = False,
     ) -> None:
         """
         Downloads any map sheets which are found within or intersecting with a defined polygon.
@@ -762,9 +761,9 @@ def download_map_sheets_by_polygon(
     def download_map_sheets_by_coordinates(
         self,
         coords: tuple,
-        path_save: Optional[str] = "maps",
-        metadata_fname: Optional[str] = "metadata.csv",
-        overwrite: Optional[bool] = False,
+        path_save: str | None = "maps",
+        metadata_fname: str | None = "metadata.csv",
+        overwrite: bool | None = False,
     ) -> None:
         """
         Downloads any maps sheets which contain a defined set of coordinates.
@@ -810,9 +809,9 @@ def download_map_sheets_by_coordinates(
     def download_map_sheets_by_line(
         self,
         line: LineString,
-        path_save: Optional[str] = "maps",
-        metadata_fname: Optional[str] = "metadata.csv",
-        overwrite: Optional[bool] = False,
+        path_save: str | None = "maps",
+        metadata_fname: str | None = "metadata.csv",
+        overwrite: bool | None = False,
     ) -> None:
         """
         Downloads any maps sheets which intersect with a line.
@@ -863,10 +862,10 @@ def download_map_sheets_by_line(
     def download_map_sheets_by_string(
         self,
         string: str,
-        keys: Union[str, list] = None,
-        path_save: Optional[str] = "maps",
-        metadata_fname: Optional[str] = "metadata.csv",
-        overwrite: Optional[bool] = False,
+        keys: str | list = None,
+        path_save: str | None = "maps",
+        metadata_fname: str | None = "metadata.csv",
+        overwrite: bool | None = False,
     ) -> None:
         """
         Download map sheets by searching for a string in a chosen metadata field.
@@ -924,9 +923,9 @@ def download_map_sheets_by_string(
 
     def download_map_sheets_by_queries(
         self,
-        path_save: Optional[str] = "maps",
-        metadata_fname: Optional[str] = "metadata.csv",
-        overwrite: Optional[bool] = False,
+        path_save: str | None = "maps",
+        metadata_fname: str | None = "metadata.csv",
+        overwrite: bool | None = False,
     ) -> None:
         """
         Downloads map sheets saved as query results.
@@ -989,8 +988,8 @@ def hist_published_dates(self, **kwargs) -> None:
     def plot_features_on_map(
         self,
         features: list,
-        map_extent: Optional[Union[str, list, tuple]] = None,
-        add_id: Optional[bool] = True,
+        map_extent: str | (list | tuple) | None = None,
+        add_id: bool | None = True,
     ) -> None:
         """
         Plots boundaries of map sheets on a map using ``cartopy`` library, (if available).
@@ -1085,8 +1084,8 @@ def plot_features_on_map(
 
     def plot_all_metadata_on_map(
         self,
-        map_extent: Optional[Union[str, list, tuple]] = None,
-        add_id: Optional[bool] = True,
+        map_extent: str | (list | tuple) | None = None,
+        add_id: bool | None = True,
     ) -> None:
         """
         Plots boundaries of all map sheets in metadata on a map using ``cartopy`` library (if available).
@@ -1109,8 +1108,8 @@ def plot_all_metadata_on_map(
 
     def plot_queries_on_map(
         self,
-        map_extent: Optional[Union[str, list, tuple]] = None,
-        add_id: Optional[bool] = True,
+        map_extent: str | (list | tuple) | None = None,
+        add_id: bool | None = True,
     ) -> None:
         """
         Plots boundaries of query results on a map using ``cartopy`` library (if available).
diff --git a/mapreader/download/tile_loading.py b/mapreader/download/tile_loading.py
index 6bbd1f40..96d83924 100644
--- a/mapreader/download/tile_loading.py
+++ b/mapreader/download/tile_loading.py
@@ -4,7 +4,6 @@
 import logging
 import os
 import urllib.request
-from typing import Union
 
 from joblib import Parallel, delayed
 from tqdm import tqdm
@@ -21,7 +20,7 @@ class TileDownloader:
     def __init__(
         self,
         tile_servers: list = None,
-        img_format: Union[str, None] = None,
+        img_format: str | None = None,
         show_progress: bool = False,
     ):
         """
@@ -99,15 +98,13 @@ def download_tiles(
         os.makedirs(self.temp_folder, exist_ok=True)
         if not download_in_parallel:
             logger.info(
-                "Downloading {} tiles sequentially to disk ..".format(
-                    grid_bb.covered_cells
-                )
+                f"Downloading {grid_bb.covered_cells} tiles sequentially to disk .."
             )
             return self._download_tiles_sequentially(grid_bb)
 
         # download in parallel
         logger.info(
-            "Downloading {} tiles to disk (in parallel)..".format(grid_bb.covered_cells)
+            f"Downloading {grid_bb.covered_cells} tiles to disk (in parallel).."
         )
         delayed_downloads = [
             delayed(self._download_tile_in_parallel)(
@@ -175,7 +172,7 @@ def _update_progressbar(self, share: float):
 
         print(
             "\r",
-            "{:3.0f}%".format(share * 100)
+            f"{share * 100:3.0f}%"
             + "|"
             + "■" * visible
             + "□" * invisible
diff --git a/mapreader/download/tile_merging.py b/mapreader/download/tile_merging.py
index 874f437f..d0b3f768 100644
--- a/mapreader/download/tile_merging.py
+++ b/mapreader/download/tile_merging.py
@@ -3,7 +3,6 @@
 
 import logging
 import os
-from typing import Union
 
 from PIL import Image
 from tqdm import tqdm
@@ -20,9 +19,9 @@
 class TileMerger:
     def __init__(
         self,
-        output_folder: Union[str, None] = None,
-        img_input_format: Union[str, None] = None,
-        img_output_format: Union[str, None] = None,
+        output_folder: str | None = None,
+        img_input_format: str | None = None,
+        img_output_format: str | None = None,
         show_progress=False,
     ):
         """TileMerger object.
@@ -132,19 +131,19 @@ def _load_tile_size(self, grid_bb: GridBoundingBox):
                 start_image = self._load_image_to_grid_cell(grid_bb.upper_corner)
             except FileNotFoundError as err:
                 logger.warning("Image has missing tiles in upper right corner.")
-                raise FileNotFoundError("[ERROR] Image is missing tiles for both lower left and upper right corners.")
-            
+                raise FileNotFoundError(
+                    "[ERROR] Image is missing tiles for both lower left and upper right corners."
+                )
+
         img_size = start_image.size
         assert (
             img_size[0] == img_size[1]
-        ), "Tiles must be quadratic. This tile, however, is rectangular: {}".format(
-            img_size
-        )
+        ), f"Tiles must be quadratic. This tile, however, is rectangular: {img_size}"
         tile_size = img_size[0]
         return tile_size
 
     def merge(
-        self, grid_bb: GridBoundingBox, file_name: Union[str, None] = None
+        self, grid_bb: GridBoundingBox, file_name: str | None = None
     ) -> bool:
         """Merges cells contained within GridBoundingBox.
 
@@ -165,7 +164,7 @@ def merge(
         try:
             tile_size = self._load_tile_size(grid_bb)
         except FileNotFoundError:
-            return False # unsuccessful
+            return False  # unsuccessful
 
         merged_image = Image.new(
             "RGBA", (len(grid_bb.x_range) * tile_size, len(grid_bb.y_range) * tile_size)
@@ -193,16 +192,14 @@ def merge(
         if file_name is None:
             file_name = self._get_output_name(grid_bb)
 
-        out_path = "{}{}.{}".format(
-            self.output_folder, file_name, self.img_output_format[0]
-        )
+        out_path = f"{self.output_folder}{file_name}.{self.img_output_format[0]}"
         merged_image.save(out_path, self.img_output_format[1])
         success = True if os.path.exists(out_path) else False
         if success:
             logger.info(
-                "Merge successful! The image has been stored at '{}'".format(out_path)
+                f"Merge successful! The image has been stored at '{out_path}'"
             )
         else:
-            logger.warning("Merge unsuccessful! '{}' not saved.".format(out_path))
+            logger.warning(f"Merge unsuccessful! '{out_path}' not saved.")
 
         return success
diff --git a/mapreader/load/geo_utils.py b/mapreader/load/geo_utils.py
index 37e54a39..04ecc987 100644
--- a/mapreader/load/geo_utils.py
+++ b/mapreader/load/geo_utils.py
@@ -1,5 +1,4 @@
 #!/usr/bin/env python
-# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
 from __future__ import annotations
 
 import numpy as np
@@ -35,7 +34,7 @@ def extractGeoInfo(image_path):
         tiff_coord = tuple(tiff_src.bounds)
 
     print(f"[INFO] Shape: {tiff_shape}. \n[INFO] CRS: {tiff_proj}.")
-    print("[INFO] Coordinates: %.4f %.4f %.4f %.4f" % tiff_coord)
+    print("[INFO] Coordinates: {:.4f} {:.4f} {:.4f} {:.4f}".format(*tiff_coord))
 
     return tiff_shape, tiff_proj, tiff_coord
 
@@ -66,7 +65,7 @@ def reproject_geo_info(image_path, target_crs="EPSG:4326", calc_size_in_m=False)
     coord = (xmin, ymin, xmax, ymax)
 
     print(f"[INFO] New CRS: {target_crs}")
-    print("[INFO] Reprojected coordinates: %.4f %.4f %.4f %.4f" % coord)
+    print("[INFO] Reprojected coordinates: {:.4f} {:.4f} {:.4f} {:.4f}".format(*coord))
 
     height, width, _ = tiff_shape
 
diff --git a/mapreader/load/images.py b/mapreader/load/images.py
index 65d228f9..9e15b17d 100644
--- a/mapreader/load/images.py
+++ b/mapreader/load/images.py
@@ -9,7 +9,7 @@
 import random
 import warnings
 from glob import glob
-from typing import Dict, List, Literal, Optional, Tuple, Union
+from typing import Literal
 
 import matplotlib.image as mpimg
 import matplotlib.patches as patches
@@ -66,11 +66,11 @@ class MapImages:
 
     def __init__(
         self,
-        path_images: Optional[str] = None,
-        file_ext: Optional[Union[str, bool]] = False,
-        tree_level: Optional[str] = "parent",
-        parent_path: Optional[str] = None,
-        **kwargs: Dict,
+        path_images: str | None = None,
+        file_ext: str | bool | None = False,
+        tree_level: str | None = "parent",
+        parent_path: str | None = None,
+        **kwargs: dict,
     ):
         """Initializes the MapImages class."""
 
@@ -150,9 +150,9 @@ def __str__(self) -> Literal[""]:
     def _images_constructor(
         self,
         image_path: str,
-        parent_path: Optional[str] = None,
-        tree_level: Optional[str] = "parent",
-        **kwargs: Dict,
+        parent_path: str | None = None,
+        tree_level: str | None = "parent",
+        **kwargs: dict,
     ) -> None:
         """
         Constructs image data from the given image path and parent path and adds it to the ``MapImages`` instance's ``images`` attribute.
@@ -249,7 +249,7 @@ def _check_image_mode(image_path):
             )
 
     @staticmethod
-    def _convert_image_path(inp_path: str) -> Tuple[str, str, str]:
+    def _convert_image_path(inp_path: str) -> tuple[str, str, str]:
         """
         Convert an image path into an absolute path and find basename and directory name.
 
@@ -270,12 +270,12 @@ def _convert_image_path(inp_path: str) -> Tuple[str, str, str]:
 
     def add_metadata(
         self,
-        metadata: Union[str, pd.DataFrame],
-        index_col: Optional[Union[int, str]] = 0,
-        delimiter: Optional[str] = ",",
-        columns: Optional[List[str]] = None,
-        tree_level: Optional[str] = "parent",
-        ignore_mismatch: Optional[bool] = False,
+        metadata: str | pd.DataFrame,
+        index_col: int | str | None = 0,
+        delimiter: str | None = ",",
+        columns: list[str] | None = None,
+        tree_level: str | None = "parent",
+        ignore_mismatch: bool | None = False,
     ) -> None:
         """
         Add metadata information to the images dictionary.
@@ -426,9 +426,9 @@ def add_metadata(
     def show_sample(
         self,
         num_samples: int,
-        tree_level: Optional[str] = "patch",
-        random_seed: Optional[int] = 65,
-        **kwargs: Dict,
+        tree_level: str | None = "patch",
+        random_seed: int | None = 65,
+        **kwargs: dict,
     ) -> None:
         """
         Display a sample of images from a particular level in the image
@@ -475,15 +475,15 @@ def show_sample(
         plt.tight_layout()
         plt.show()
 
-    def list_parents(self) -> List[str]:
+    def list_parents(self) -> list[str]:
         """Return list of all parents"""
         return list(self.parents.keys())
 
-    def list_patches(self) -> List[str]:
+    def list_patches(self) -> list[str]:
         """Return list of all patches"""
         return list(self.patches.keys())
 
-    def add_shape(self, tree_level: Optional[str] = "parent") -> None:
+    def add_shape(self, tree_level: str | None = "parent") -> None:
         """
         Add a shape to each image in the specified level of the image
         hierarchy.
@@ -509,7 +509,7 @@ def add_shape(self, tree_level: Optional[str] = "parent") -> None:
         for image_id in image_ids:
             self._add_shape_id(image_id=image_id)
 
-    def add_coord_increments(self, verbose: Optional[bool] = False) -> None:
+    def add_coord_increments(self, verbose: bool | None = False) -> None:
         """
         Adds coordinate increments to each image at the parent level.
 
@@ -572,7 +572,7 @@ def add_patch_polygons(self, verbose: bool = False) -> None:
             self._add_patch_polygons_id(patch_id, verbose)
 
     def add_center_coord(
-        self, tree_level: Optional[str] = "patch", verbose: Optional[bool] = False
+        self, tree_level: str | None = "patch", verbose: bool | None = False
     ) -> None:
         """
         Adds center coordinates to each image at the specified tree level.
@@ -627,7 +627,7 @@ def add_center_coord(
 
     def _add_shape_id(
         self,
-        image_id: Union[int, str],
+        image_id: int | str,
     ) -> None:
         """
         Add shape (image_height, image_width, image_channels) of the image
@@ -662,7 +662,7 @@ def _add_shape_id(
             )
 
     def _add_coord_increments_id(
-        self, image_id: Union[int, str], verbose: Optional[bool] = False
+        self, image_id: int | str, verbose: bool | None = False
     ) -> None:
         """
         Add pixel-wise delta longitude (``dlon``) and delta latitude
@@ -801,8 +801,8 @@ def _add_patch_polygons_id(self, image_id: str, verbose: bool = False) -> None:
 
     def _add_center_coord_id(
         self,
-        image_id: Union[int, str],
-        verbose: Optional[bool] = False,
+        image_id: int | str,
+        verbose: bool | None = False,
     ) -> None:
         """
         Calculates and adds center coordinates (longitude as ``center_lon``
@@ -845,10 +845,10 @@ def _add_center_coord_id(
 
     def _calc_pixel_height_width(
         self,
-        parent_id: Union[int, str],
-        method: Optional[str] = "great-circle",
-        verbose: Optional[bool] = False,
-    ) -> Tuple[Tuple, float, float]:
+        parent_id: int | str,
+        method: str | None = "great-circle",
+        verbose: bool | None = False,
+    ) -> tuple[tuple, float, float]:
         """
         Calculate the height and width of each pixel in a given image in meters.
 
@@ -930,16 +930,16 @@ def _calc_pixel_height_width(
 
     def patchify_all(
         self,
-        method: Optional[str] = "pixel",
-        patch_size: Optional[int] = 100,
-        tree_level: Optional[str] = "parent",
-        path_save: Optional[str] = None,
-        add_to_parents: Optional[bool] = True,
-        square_cuts: Optional[bool] = False,
-        resize_factor: Optional[bool] = False,
-        output_format: Optional[str] = "png",
-        rewrite: Optional[bool] = False,
-        verbose: Optional[bool] = False,
+        method: str | None = "pixel",
+        patch_size: int | None = 100,
+        tree_level: str | None = "parent",
+        path_save: str | None = None,
+        add_to_parents: bool | None = True,
+        square_cuts: bool | None = False,
+        resize_factor: bool | None = False,
+        output_format: str | None = "png",
+        rewrite: bool | None = False,
+        verbose: bool | None = False,
     ) -> None:
         """
         Patchify all images in the specified ``tree_level`` and (if ``add_to_parents=True``) add the patches to the MapImages instance's ``images`` dictionary.
@@ -1029,12 +1029,12 @@ def _patchify_by_pixel(
         image_id: str,
         patch_size: int,
         path_save: str,
-        add_to_parents: Optional[bool] = True,
-        square_cuts: Optional[bool] = False,
-        resize_factor: Optional[bool] = False,
-        output_format: Optional[str] = "png",
-        rewrite: Optional[bool] = False,
-        verbose: Optional[bool] = False,
+        add_to_parents: bool | None = True,
+        square_cuts: bool | None = False,
+        resize_factor: bool | None = False,
+        output_format: str | None = "png",
+        rewrite: bool | None = False,
+        verbose: bool | None = False,
     ):
         """Patchify one image and (if ``add_to_parents=True``) add the patch to the MapImages instance's ``images`` dictionary.
 
@@ -1154,7 +1154,7 @@ def _add_patch_to_parent(self, patch_id: str) -> None:
             if patch_id not in self.parents[patch_parent]["patches"]:
                 self.parents[patch_parent]["patches"].append(patch_id)
 
-    def _make_dir(self, path_make: str, exists_ok: Optional[bool] = True) -> None:
+    def _make_dir(self, path_make: str, exists_ok: bool | None = True) -> None:
         """
         Helper method to make directories.
 
@@ -1165,10 +1165,10 @@ def _make_dir(self, path_make: str, exists_ok: Optional[bool] = True) -> None:
 
     def calc_pixel_stats(
         self,
-        parent_id: Optional[str] = None,
-        calc_mean: Optional[bool] = True,
-        calc_std: Optional[bool] = True,
-        verbose: Optional[bool] = False,
+        parent_id: str | None = None,
+        calc_mean: bool | None = True,
+        calc_std: bool | None = True,
+        verbose: bool | None = False,
     ) -> None:
         """
         Calculate the mean and standard deviation of pixel values for all
@@ -1254,10 +1254,10 @@ def calc_pixel_stats(
 
     def convert_images(
         self,
-        save: Optional[bool] = False,
-        save_format: Optional[str] = "csv",
-        delimiter: Optional[str] = ",",
-    ) -> Tuple[pd.DataFrame, pd.DataFrame]:
+        save: bool | None = False,
+        save_format: str | None = "csv",
+        delimiter: str | None = ",",
+    ) -> tuple[pd.DataFrame, pd.DataFrame]:
         """
         Convert the ``MapImages`` instance's ``images`` dictionary into pandas
         DataFrames for easy manipulation.
@@ -1308,8 +1308,8 @@ def convert_images(
     def show_parent(
         self,
         parent_id: str,
-        column_to_plot: Optional[str] = None,
-        **kwargs: Dict,
+        column_to_plot: str | None = None,
+        **kwargs: dict,
     ) -> None:
         """
         A wrapper method for `.show()` which plots all patches of a
@@ -1342,21 +1342,21 @@ def show_parent(
 
     def show(
         self,
-        image_ids: Union[str, List[str]],
-        column_to_plot: Optional[str] = None,
-        figsize: Optional[tuple] = (10, 10),
-        plot_parent: Optional[bool] = True,
-        patch_border: Optional[bool] = True,
-        border_color: Optional[str] = "r",
-        vmin: Optional[float] = None,
-        vmax: Optional[float] = None,
-        alpha: Optional[float] = 1.0,
-        cmap: Optional[str] = "viridis",
-        discrete_cmap: Optional[int] = 256,
-        plot_histogram: Optional[bool] = False,
-        save_kml_dir: Optional[Union[bool, str]] = False,
-        image_width_resolution: Optional[int] = None,
-        kml_dpi_image: Optional[int] = None,
+        image_ids: str | list[str],
+        column_to_plot: str | None = None,
+        figsize: tuple | None = (10, 10),
+        plot_parent: bool | None = True,
+        patch_border: bool | None = True,
+        border_color: str | None = "r",
+        vmin: float | None = None,
+        vmax: float | None = None,
+        alpha: float | None = 1.0,
+        cmap: str | None = "viridis",
+        discrete_cmap: int | None = 256,
+        plot_histogram: bool | None = False,
+        save_kml_dir: bool | str | None = False,
+        image_width_resolution: int | None = None,
+        kml_dpi_image: int | None = None,
     ) -> None:
         """
         Plot images from a list of `image_ids`.
@@ -1588,8 +1588,8 @@ def _create_kml(
         self,
         kml_out_path: str,
         column_to_plot: str,
-        coords: Union[List, Tuple],
-        counter: Optional[int] = -1,
+        coords: list | tuple,
+        counter: int | None = -1,
     ) -> None:
         """Create a KML file.
 
@@ -1653,11 +1653,11 @@ def _hist_values_array(
     def load_patches(
         self,
         patch_paths: str,
-        patch_file_ext: Optional[Union[str, bool]] = False,
-        parent_paths: Optional[Union[str, bool]] = False,
-        parent_file_ext: Optional[Union[str, bool]] = False,
-        add_geo_info: Optional[bool] = False,
-        clear_images: Optional[bool] = False,
+        patch_file_ext: str | bool | None = False,
+        parent_paths: str | bool | None = False,
+        parent_file_ext: str | bool | None = False,
+        add_geo_info: bool | None = False,
+        clear_images: bool | None = False,
     ) -> None:
         """
         Loads patch images from the given paths and adds them to the ``images``
@@ -1737,7 +1737,7 @@ def load_patches(
 
     @staticmethod
     def detect_parent_id_from_path(
-        image_id: Union[int, str], parent_delimiter: Optional[str] = "#"
+        image_id: int | str, parent_delimiter: str | None = "#"
     ) -> str:
         """
         Detect parent IDs from ``image_id``.
@@ -1759,9 +1759,9 @@ def detect_parent_id_from_path(
 
     @staticmethod
     def detect_pixel_bounds_from_path(
-        image_id: Union[int, str],
+        image_id: int | str,
         # border_delimiter="-" # <-- not in use in this method
-    ) -> Tuple[int, int, int, int]:
+    ) -> tuple[int, int, int, int]:
         """
         Detects borders from the path assuming patch is named using the
         following format: ``...-min_x-min_y-max_x-max_y-...``
@@ -1792,11 +1792,11 @@ def detect_pixel_bounds_from_path(
 
     def load_parents(
         self,
-        parent_paths: Optional[Union[str, bool]] = False,
-        parent_ids: Optional[Union[List[str], str, bool]] = False,
-        parent_file_ext: Optional[Union[str, bool]] = False,
-        overwrite: Optional[bool] = False,
-        add_geo_info: Optional[bool] = False,
+        parent_paths: str | bool | None = False,
+        parent_ids: list[str] | (str | bool) | None = False,
+        parent_file_ext: str | bool | None = False,
+        overwrite: bool | None = False,
+        add_geo_info: bool | None = False,
     ) -> None:
         """
         Load parent images from file paths (``parent_paths``).
@@ -1867,9 +1867,9 @@ def load_parents(
 
     def load_df(
         self,
-        parent_df: Optional[pd.DataFrame] = None,
-        patch_df: Optional[pd.DataFrame] = None,
-        clear_images: Optional[bool] = True,
+        parent_df: pd.DataFrame | None = None,
+        patch_df: pd.DataFrame | None = None,
+        clear_images: bool | None = True,
     ) -> None:
         """
         Create ``MapImages`` instance by loading data from pandas DataFrame(s).
@@ -1904,12 +1904,12 @@ def load_df(
 
     def load_csv(
         self,
-        parent_path: Optional[str] = None,
-        patch_path: Optional[str] = None,
-        clear_images: Optional[bool] = False,
-        index_col_patch: Optional[int] = 0,
-        index_col_parent: Optional[int] = 0,
-        delimiter: Optional[str] = ",",
+        parent_path: str | None = None,
+        patch_path: str | None = None,
+        clear_images: bool | None = False,
+        index_col_patch: int | None = 0,
+        index_col_parent: int | None = 0,
+        delimiter: str | None = ",",
     ) -> None:
         """
         Load CSV files containing information about parent and patches,
@@ -1960,8 +1960,8 @@ def load_csv(
 
     def add_geo_info(
         self,
-        target_crs: Optional[str] = "EPSG:4326",
-        verbose: Optional[bool] = True,
+        target_crs: str | None = "EPSG:4326",
+        verbose: bool | None = True,
     ) -> None:
         """
         Add coordinates (reprojected to EPSG:4326) to all parents images using image metadata.
@@ -1989,8 +1989,8 @@ def add_geo_info(
     def _add_geo_info_id(
         self,
         image_id: str,
-        target_crs: Optional[str] = "EPSG:4326",
-        verbose: Optional[bool] = True,
+        target_crs: str | None = "EPSG:4326",
+        verbose: bool | None = True,
     ) -> None:
         """
         Add coordinates (reprojected to EPSG:4326) to an image.
@@ -2078,9 +2078,9 @@ def _get_tree_level(self, image_id: str) -> str:
 
     def save_patches_as_geotiffs(
         self,
-        rewrite: Optional[bool] = False,
-        verbose: Optional[bool] = False,
-        crs: Optional[str] = None,
+        rewrite: bool | None = False,
+        verbose: bool | None = False,
+        crs: str | None = None,
     ) -> None:
         """Save all patches in MapImages instance as geotiffs.
 
@@ -2104,9 +2104,9 @@ def save_patches_as_geotiffs(
     def _save_patch_as_geotiff(
         self,
         patch_id: str,
-        rewrite: Optional[bool] = False,
-        verbose: Optional[bool] = False,
-        crs: Optional[str] = None,
+        rewrite: bool | None = False,
+        verbose: bool | None = False,
+        crs: str | None = None,
     ) -> None:
         """Save a patch as a geotiff.
 
@@ -2183,9 +2183,9 @@ def _save_patch_as_geotiff(
 
     def save_patches_to_geojson(
         self,
-        geojson_fname: Optional[str] = "patches.geojson",
-        rewrite: Optional[bool] = False,
-        crs: Optional[str] = None,
+        geojson_fname: str | None = "patches.geojson",
+        rewrite: bool | None = False,
+        crs: str | None = None,
     ) -> None:
         """Saves patches to a geojson file.
 
diff --git a/mapreader/load/loader.py b/mapreader/load/loader.py
index aed3f5cf..77838fde 100644
--- a/mapreader/load/loader.py
+++ b/mapreader/load/loader.py
@@ -1,16 +1,13 @@
 #!/usr/bin/env python
-# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
 from __future__ import annotations
 
-from typing import Optional, Union
-
 from mapreader.load.images import MapImages
 
 
 def loader(
-    path_images: Optional[str] = None,
-    tree_level: Optional[str] = "parent",
-    parent_path: Optional[str] = None,
+    path_images: str | None = None,
+    tree_level: str | None = "parent",
+    parent_path: str | None = None,
     **kwargs: dict,
 ) -> MapImages:
     """
@@ -53,11 +50,11 @@ def loader(
 
 def load_patches(
     patch_paths: str,
-    patch_file_ext: Optional[Union[str, bool]] = False,
-    parent_paths: Optional[Union[str, bool]] = False,
-    parent_file_ext: Optional[Union[str, bool]] = False,
-    add_geo_info: Optional[bool] = False,
-    clear_images: Optional[bool] = False,
+    patch_file_ext: str | bool | None = False,
+    parent_paths: str | bool | None = False,
+    parent_file_ext: str | bool | None = False,
+    add_geo_info: bool | None = False,
+    clear_images: bool | None = False,
 ) -> MapImages:
     """
     Creates a ``MapImages`` class to manage a collection of image paths and
diff --git a/mapreader/process/process.py b/mapreader/process/process.py
index d83df08c..ab38bd26 100644
--- a/mapreader/process/process.py
+++ b/mapreader/process/process.py
@@ -1,5 +1,4 @@
 #!/usr/bin/env python
-# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
 from __future__ import annotations
 
 try:
@@ -17,12 +16,11 @@
 import os
 import subprocess
 from glob import glob
-from typing import List, Optional, Union
 
 
 def preprocess_all(
-    image_paths: Union[List[str], str], save_preproc_dir: str, **kwds
-) -> List[str]:
+    image_paths: list[str] | str, save_preproc_dir: str, **kwds
+) -> list[str]:
     """
     Preprocess all images in a list of file paths or a directory using the
     ``preprocess`` function and save them to the specified directory.
@@ -61,12 +59,12 @@ def preprocess_all(
 def preprocess(
     image_path: str,
     save_preproc_dir: str,
-    dst_crs: Optional[str] = "EPSG:3857",
-    crop_prefix: Optional[str] = "preproc_",
-    reproj_prefix: Optional[str] = "preproc_tmp_",
-    resample_prefix: Optional[str] = "preproc_resample_",
-    resize_percent: Optional[int] = 40,
-    remove_reproj_file: Optional[bool] = True,
+    dst_crs: str | None = "EPSG:3857",
+    crop_prefix: str | None = "preproc_",
+    reproj_prefix: str | None = "preproc_tmp_",
+    resample_prefix: str | None = "preproc_resample_",
+    resize_percent: int | None = 40,
+    remove_reproj_file: bool | None = True,
 ) -> str:
     """
     Preprocesses an image file by reprojecting it to a new coordinate
diff --git a/mapreader/utils/compute_and_save_stats.py b/mapreader/utils/compute_and_save_stats.py
index de6a9071..c4fcc718 100644
--- a/mapreader/utils/compute_and_save_stats.py
+++ b/mapreader/utils/compute_and_save_stats.py
@@ -1,5 +1,4 @@
 #!/usr/bin/env python
-# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
 from __future__ import annotations
 
 import os
diff --git a/mapreader/utils/slice_parallel.py b/mapreader/utils/slice_parallel.py
index 43324713..f467ad0a 100644
--- a/mapreader/utils/slice_parallel.py
+++ b/mapreader/utils/slice_parallel.py
@@ -1,5 +1,4 @@
 #!/usr/bin/env python
-# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
 from __future__ import annotations
 
 import glob
diff --git a/versioneer.py b/versioneer.py
index 871a67d3..380e05dd 100644
--- a/versioneer.py
+++ b/versioneer.py
@@ -317,7 +317,7 @@
 import subprocess
 import sys
 from pathlib import Path
-from typing import Callable, Dict
+from typing import Callable
 
 have_tomllib = True
 if sys.version_info >= (3, 11):
@@ -368,8 +368,7 @@ def get_root():
         vsr_dir = os.path.normcase(os.path.splitext(versioneer_py)[0])
         if me_dir != vsr_dir and "VERSIONEER_PEP518" not in globals():
             print(
-                "Warning: build in %s is using versioneer.py from %s"
-                % (os.path.dirname(my_path), versioneer_py)
+                "Warning: build in {} is using versioneer.py from {}".format(os.path.dirname(my_path), versioneer_py)
             )
     except NameError:
         pass
@@ -419,8 +418,8 @@ class NotThisMethod(Exception):
 
 
 # these dictionaries contain VCS-specific tools
-LONG_VERSION_PY: Dict[str, str] = {}
-HANDLERS: Dict[str, Dict[str, Callable]] = {}
+LONG_VERSION_PY: dict[str, str] = {}
+HANDLERS: dict[str, dict[str, Callable]] = {}
 
 
 def register_vcs_handler(vcs, method):  # decorator
@@ -469,7 +468,7 @@ def run_command(commands, args, cwd=None, verbose=False, hide_stderr=False, env=
             return None, None
     else:
         if verbose:
-            print("unable to find command, tried %s" % (commands,))
+            print(f"unable to find command, tried {commands}")
         return None, None
     stdout = process.communicate()[0].strip().decode()
     if process.returncode != 0:
@@ -1152,7 +1151,7 @@ def git_get_keywords(versionfile_abs):
     # _version.py.
     keywords = {}
     try:
-        with open(versionfile_abs, "r") as fobj:
+        with open(versionfile_abs) as fobj:
             for line in fobj:
                 if line.strip().startswith("git_refnames ="):
                     mo = re.search(r'=\s*"(.*)"', line)
@@ -1354,7 +1353,7 @@ def git_pieces_from_vcs(tag_prefix, root, verbose, runner=run_command):
             if verbose:
                 fmt = "tag '%s' doesn't start with prefix '%s'"
                 print(fmt % (full_tag, tag_prefix))
-            pieces["error"] = "tag '%s' doesn't start with prefix '%s'" % (
+            pieces["error"] = "tag '{}' doesn't start with prefix '{}'".format(
                 full_tag,
                 tag_prefix,
             )
@@ -1406,7 +1405,7 @@ def do_vcs_install(versionfile_source, ipy):
         files.append(versioneer_file)
     present = False
     try:
-        with open(".gitattributes", "r") as fobj:
+        with open(".gitattributes") as fobj:
             for line in fobj:
                 if line.strip().startswith(versionfile_source):
                     if "export-subst" in line.strip().split()[1:]:
@@ -1445,8 +1444,7 @@ def versions_from_parentdir(parentdir_prefix, root, verbose):
 
     if verbose:
         print(
-            "Tried directories %s but none started with prefix %s"
-            % (str(rootdirs), parentdir_prefix)
+            "Tried directories {} but none started with prefix {}".format(str(rootdirs), parentdir_prefix)
         )
     raise NotThisMethod("rootdir doesn't start with parentdir_prefix")
 
@@ -1495,7 +1493,7 @@ def write_to_version_file(filename, versions):
     with open(filename, "w") as f:
         f.write(SHORT_VERSION_PY % contents)
 
-    print("set %s to '%s'" % (filename, versions["version"]))
+    print("set {} to '{}'".format(filename, versions["version"]))
 
 
 def plus_or_dot(pieces):
@@ -1800,7 +1798,7 @@ def get_versions(verbose=False):
     try:
         ver = versions_from_file(versionfile_abs)
         if verbose:
-            print("got version from file %s %s" % (versionfile_abs, ver))
+            print(f"got version from file {versionfile_abs} {ver}")
         return ver
     except NotThisMethod:
         pass
@@ -2188,7 +2186,7 @@ def do_setup():
     ipy = os.path.join(os.path.dirname(cfg.versionfile_source), "__init__.py")
     if os.path.exists(ipy):
         try:
-            with open(ipy, "r") as f:
+            with open(ipy) as f:
                 old = f.read()
         except OSError:
             old = ""
@@ -2220,7 +2218,7 @@ def scan_setup_py():
     found = set()
     setters = False
     errors = 0
-    with open("setup.py", "r") as f:
+    with open("setup.py") as f:
         for line in f.readlines():
             if "import versioneer" in line:
                 found.add("import")