| language | contributors | filename | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ballerina |
|
learn_ballerina.bal |
Ballerina is a statically-typed programming language for making development for the cloud an enjoyable experience.
// Single-line comment
// Import modules into the current source file
import ballerina/io;
import ballerina/time;
import ballerina/http;
import ballerinax/java.jdbc;
import ballerina/lang.'int as ints;
import ballerinax/awslambda;
// Module alias "af" used in code in place of the full module name
import ballerinax/azure.functions as af;
http:Client clientEP = new ("https://freegeoip.app/");
jdbc:Client accountsDB = new ({url: "jdbc:mysql://localhost:3306/AccountsDB",
username: "test", password: "test"});
// A service is a first-class concept in Ballerina, and is one of the
// entrypoints to a Ballerina program.
// The Ballerina platform also provides support for easy deployment to
// environments such as Kubernetes (https://ballerina.io/learn/deployment/kubernetes/).
service geoservice on new http:Listener(8080) {
@http:ResourceConfig {
path: "/geoip/{ip}"
}
resource function geoip(http:Caller caller, http:Request request,
string ip) returns @tainted error? {
http:Response resp = check clientEP->get("/json/" + <@untainted>ip);
check caller->respond(<@untainted> check resp.getTextPayload());
}
}
// Serverless Function-as-a-Service support with AWS Lambda.
// The Ballerina compiler automatically generates the final deployment
// artifact to be deployed.
@awslambda:Function
public function echo(awslambda:Context ctx, json input) returns json {
return input;
}
@awslambda:Function
public function notifyS3(awslambda:Context ctx,
awslambda:S3Event event) returns json {
return event.Records[0].s3.'object.key;
}
// Serverless Function-as-a-Service support with Azure Functions.
// Similar to AWS Lambda, the compiler generates the deployment artifacts.
@af:Function
public function fromQueueToQueue(af:Context ctx,
@af:QueueTrigger { queueName: "queue1" } string inMsg,
@af:QueueOutput { queueName: "queue2" } af:StringOutputBinding outMsg) {
outMsg.value = inMsg;
}
// A custom record type
public type Person record {
string id; // required field
string name;
int age?; // optional field
string country = "N/A"; // default value
};
@af:Function
public function fromHttpTriggerCosmosDBInput(
@af:HTTPTrigger { route: "c1/{country}" } af:HTTPRequest httpReq,
@af:CosmosDBInput { connectionStringSetting: "CosmosDBConnection",
databaseName: "db1", collectionName: "c1",
sqlQuery: "select * from c1 where c1.country = {country}" }
Person[] dbReq)
returns @af:HTTPOutput string|error {
return dbReq.toString();
}
public function main() returns @tainted error? {
int a = 10; // 64-bit signed integer
float b = 1.56; // 64-bit IEEE 754-2008 binary floating point number
string c = "hello"; // a unicode string
boolean d = true; // true, false
decimal e = 15.335; // decimal floating point number
var f = 20; // type inference with 'var' - 'f' is an int
int[] intArray = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6];
int x = intArray.shift(); // similar to a dequeue operation
x = intArray.pop(); // removes the last element
intArray.push(10); // add to the end
// Tuples - similar to a fixed length array with a distinct type for each slot
[string, int] p1 = ["Jack", 1990];
[string, int] p2 = ["Tom", 1986];
io:println("Name: ", p1[0], " Birth Year: ", p1[1]);
string name1;
int birthYear1;
[name1, birthYear1] = p1; // tuple destructuring
var [name2, birthYear2] = p2; // declare and assign values in the same statement
// If statements
int ix = 10;
if ix < 10 {
io:println("value is less than 10");
} else if ix == 10 {
io:println("value equals to 10");
} else {
io:println("value is greater than 10");
}
// Loops
int count = 10;
int i = 0;
while i < 10 {
io:println(i);
}
// Loop from 0 to count (inclusive)
foreach var j in 0...count {
io:println(j);
}
// Loop from 0 to count (non-inclusive)
foreach var j in 0..<count {
io:println(j);
}
// Loop a list
foreach var j in intArray {
io:println(j);
}
json j1 = { "name" : name1, "birthYear" : birthYear1, "zipcode" : 90210 };
io:println(j1.name, " - ", j1.zipcode);
// New fields are added to a JSON value through "mergeJson"
var j2 = j1.mergeJson({ "id" : "90400593053"});
// XML namespace declaration
xmlns "http://example.com/ns1" as ns1;
xmlns "http://example.com/default";
// XML variable from a literal value
xml x1 = xml `<ns1:entry><name>{{name1}}</name><birthYear>{{birthYear1}}</birthYear></ns1:entry>`;
io:println(x1);
// Access specific elements in the XML value
io:println(x1/<name>);
// List all child items in the XML value
io:println(x1/*);
// Function invocations
x = add(1, 2);
io:println(multiply(2, 4));
// Invocation providing value for the defaultable parameter
io:println(multiply(3, 4, true));
// Invocation with values to a rest parameter (multi-valued)
io:println(addAll(1, 2, 3));
io:println(addAll(1, 2, 3, 4, 5));
// Function pointers
(function (int, int) returns int) op1 = getOperation("add");
(function (int, int) returns int) op2 = getOperation("mod");
io:println(op1(5, 10));
io:println(op2(13, 10));
// Closures
(function (int x) returns int) add5 = getAdder(5);
(function (int x) returns int) add10 = getAdder(10);
io:println(add5(10));
io:println(add10(10));
int[] numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8];
// Functional iteration
int[] evenNumbers = numbers.filter(function (int x) returns boolean { return x % 2 == 0; });
// Union types - "input" is of type either string or byte[]
string|byte[] uval = "XXX";
// A type test expression ("uval is string") can be used to check the
// runtime type of a variable.
if uval is string {
// In the current scope, "uval" is a string value
string data = "data:" + uval;
} else {
// Since the expression in the "if" statement ruled out that it's not a string,
// the only type left is "byte[]"; so in the current scope, "uval" will always
// be a "byte[]".
int inputLength = uval.length();
}
// Error handling
string input = io:readln("Enter number: ");
int|error result = ints:fromString(input);
if result is int {
io:println("Number: ", result);
} else {
io:println("Invalid number: ", input);
}
// A check expression can be used to directly return the error from
// the current function if its subexpression evaluated to an error
// value in the runtime.
int number = check ints:fromString(input);
// Concurrent execution using workers in a function
doWorkers();
// Asynchronous execution with futures
future<int> f10 = start fib(10);
var webresult = clientEP->get("/");
int fresult = wait f10;
if webresult is http:Response {
io:println(webresult.getTextPayload());
io:println(fresult);
}
// Mapping types
map<int> ageMap = {};
ageMap["Peter"] = 25;
ageMap["John"] = 30;
int? agePeter = ageMap["Peter"]; // int? is the union type int|() - int or nill
if agePeter is int {
io:println("Peter's age is ", agePeter);
} else {
io:println("Peter's age is not found");
}
Person person1 = { id: "p1", name : "Anne", age: 28, country: "Sri Lanka" };
Scores score1 = { physics : 80, mathematics: 95 };
score1["chemistry"] = 75;
io:println(score1["chemistry"]);
Student student1 = { id: "s1", name: "Jack", age: 25, country: "Japan" };
student1.college = "Stanford";
string? jacksCollege = student1?.college; // optional field access
if jacksCollege is string {
io:println("Jack's college is ", jacksCollege);
}
// Due to the structural type system, "student1" can be assigned to "person2",
// since the student1's structure is compatible with person2's,
// where we can say, a "Student" is a "Person" as well.
Person person2 = student1;
map<int> grades = {"Jack": 95, "Anne": 90, "John": 80, "Bill": 55};
Person px1 = {id: "px1", name: "Jack", age: 30, country: "Canada"};
Person px2 = {id: "px2", name: "John", age: 25};
Person px3 = {id: "px3", name: "Anne", age: 17, country: "UK"};
Person px4 = {id: "px4", name: "Bill", age: 15, country: "USA"};
Person[] persons = [];
persons.push(px1);
persons.push(px2);
persons.push(px3);
persons.push(px4);
// Query expressions used to execute complex queries for list data
Result[] results = from var person in persons
let int lgrade = (grades[person.name] ?: 0)
where lgrade > 75
let string targetCollege = "Stanford"
select {
name: person.name,
college: targetCollege,
grade: lgrade
};
// Compile-time taint checking for handling untrusted data
string s1 = "abc";
mySecureFunction(s1);
// Explicitely make "s2" a tainted value. External input to a Ballerina
// program such as command-line arguments and network input are by-default
// marked as tainted data.
string s2 = <@tainted> s1;
// "s2x" is now a tainted value, since its value is derived using a
// tainted value (s1).
string s2x = s2 + "abc";
// The following line uncommented will result in a compilation error,
// since we are passing a tainted value (s2x) to a function which
// exepects an untainted value.
// mySecureFunction(s2x);
// Instantiating objects
Employee emp1 = new("E0001", "Jack Smith", "Sales", 2009);
io:println("The company service duration of ", emp1.name,
" is ", emp1.serviceDuration());
// Supported operations can be executed in a transaction by enclosing the actions
// in a "transaction" block.
transaction {
// Executes the below database operations in a single local transactions
var r1 = accountsDB->update("UPDATE Employee SET balance = balance + ? WHERE id = ?", 5500.0, "ID001");
var r2 = accountsDB->update("UPDATE Employee SET balance = balance + ? WHERE id = ?", 5500.0, "ID001");
}
}
// An object is a behavioural type, which encapsulates both data and functionality.
type Employee object {
// Private fields are only visible within the object and its methods
private string empId;
// Public fields can be accessed by anyone
public string name;
public string department;
// The default qualifier is a "protected" field,
// which are accessible only within the module.
int yearJoined;
// The object initialization function; automatically called when an object is instantiated.
public function __init(string empId, string name, string department, int yearJoined) {
self.empId = empId;
self.name = name;
self.department = department;
self.yearJoined = yearJoined;
}
// An object method
public function serviceDuration() returns int {
time:Time ct = time:currentTime();
return time:getYear(ct) - self.yearJoined;
}
};
// Student is a subtype of Person
type Student record {
string id;
string name;
int age;
string college?;
string country;
};
type Scores record {
int physics;
int mathematics;
};
type Result record {
string name;
string college;
int grade;
};
public function getOperation(string op) returns (function (int, int) returns int) {
if op == "add" {
return add;
} else if op == "mod" {
return function (int a, int b) returns int { // anonymous function
return a % b;
};
} else {
return (x, y) => 0; // single expression anonymous no-op function
}
}
// Two required parameters
public function add(int a, int b) returns int {
return a + b;
}
// 'log' is a defaultable parameter
public function multiply(int a, int b, boolean log = false) returns int {
if log {
io:println("Multiplying ", a, " with ", b);
}
return a * b;
}
// 'numbers' is a rest parameter - it can have multiple values,
// similar to an array.
public function addAll(int... numbers) returns int {
int result = 0;
foreach int number in numbers {
result += number;
}
return result;
}
public function getAdder(int n) returns (function (int x) returns int) {
return function (int x) returns int { // returns closure
return x + n;
};
}
function fib(int n) returns int {
if n <= 2 {
return 1;
} else {
return fib(n - 1) + fib(n - 2);
}
}
// The code in worker blocks "w1" and "w2" are executed concurrency
// when this function is invoked. The "wait" expressions waits for
// the given workers to finish to retrieve their results.
public function doWorkers() {
worker w1 returns int {
int j = 10;
j -> w2;
int b;
b = <- w2;
return b * b;
}
worker w2 returns int {
int a;
a = <- w1;
a * 2 -> w1;
return a + 2;
}
record {int w1; int w2;} x = wait {w1, w2};
io:println(x);
}
// A function which takes in only an untainted string value.
public function mySecureFunction(@untainted string input) {
io:println(input);
}