diff --git a/2-tangentbdl.tex b/2-tangentbdl.tex index e54191b..a93e6a2 100644 --- a/2-tangentbdl.tex +++ b/2-tangentbdl.tex @@ -1,6 +1,6 @@ \section{Let the fun begin!} \newthought{It now remains to define derivatives} of functions between manifolds. -And, since we saw that euclidean spaces are manifolds, we must mke sure that our definition coincides with the usual one in Euclidean spaces. +And, since we saw that euclidean spaces are manifolds, we must mke sure that our definition coincides with the usual one in euclidean spaces. \begin{marginfigure}[7em] \includegraphics{2_1-embedded-sphere-tangent.pdf} @@ -449,8 +449,8 @@ \section{Germs and derivations} \end{exercise} \begin{exercise}[Tangent vectors as equivalence classes of charts and vectors] -Let $M$ be a smooth $m$-manifolds with maximal smooth atlas $\Sigma$. -For $p\in M$, let $\Sigma_p \subset \Sigma$ denote the set of charts $\varphi\in\Sigma$ such that $p$ lies in the image of $\varphi$. +Let $M$ be a smooth $m$-manifold with maximal smooth atlas $\cA$. +For $p\in M$, let $\cA_p \subset \cA$ denote the set of charts $\varphi\in\cA$ such that $p$ lies in the domain of $\varphi$. \begin{enumerate} \item Show that \begin{equation} @@ -458,8 +458,8 @@ \section{Germs and derivations} \quad\Longleftrightarrow\quad D(\psi \circ \varphi^{-1})(\varphi(p))v = w. \end{equation} - defines an equivalence relation on $\R^m\times\Sigma_p$. - \item Let $\cT_p$ denote the set of equivalence classes $[(v,\varphi)]\in \R^m\times\Sigma_p/\!\sim$. For $\varphi\in\Sigma_p$, show that the map $T_\varphi:\R^m\to\cT_p$ given by $T_\varphi v := [(v,\varphi)]$ is a bijection. + defines an equivalence relation on $\R^m\times\cA_p$. + \item Let $\cT_p$ denote the set of equivalence classes $[(v,\varphi)]\in \R^m\times\cA_p/\!\sim$. For $\varphi\in\cA_p$, show that the map $T_\varphi:\R^m\to\cT_p$ given by $T_\varphi v := [(v,\varphi)]$ is a bijection. Deduce\footnote{Hint: use the previous exercise!} that $\cT_p$ admits a unique vector space structure such that each $T_\varphi$ is a linear isomorphism. \item Let $\varphi$ be a chart defined on a neighbourhood of $p$ with local coordinates $x^i = r^i \circ \varphi$ and let $\hat T_\varphi :\R^m \to T_pM$ denote\footnote{As it turns out, this is the same as $T_x$ defined in~\eqref{def:lin_iso_Tp}, however in this exercise we use a different notation to emphasize the dependence on the chart.} the linear isomorphism defined by $\hat T_\varphi e_i = \frac{\partial}{\partial x^i}\big|_p$. Show that there exists a linear isomorphism $\mathcal{S}_p:\cT_p\to T_pM$ which in addition satisfies $\mathcal{S}_p \circ T_\varphi = \hat T_\varphi$ for every chart $\varphi$ about $p$. @@ -468,24 +468,31 @@ \section{Germs and derivations} \section{The differential of a smooth map}\label{sec:diffsmooth} -\newthought{In the case of a smooth map between Euclidean spaces}, the total derivative of the map at a point (represented by its Jacobian matrix) is a linear map that represents the best linear approximation to the map near the given point. +\newthought{In the case of a smooth map between euclidean spaces}, the total derivative of the map at a point (represented by its Jacobian matrix) is a linear map that represents the best linear approximation to the map near the given point. +\marginnote{If you are curious about what happens if you consider higher order approximations, try to look up \emph{Jet Space} with your favourite search engine.} In the manifold case there is a similar linear map but, as we discussed, it makes no sense to talk about a linear map between manifolds: we need to find a suitable linear map between tangent spaces. It should not come a surprise that with the constructions developed so far not only do we have one such map, but we can directly relate it to a derivative. \begin{definition}\label{def:differentialMap} - Let $F: M \to N$ be a smooth map between the smooth manifolds $M$ and $N$. - Let $p\in M$. The \emph{differential $d F_p$ of $F$ at $p$} is the map\footnote{In the differential geometry literature, the differential has many names: you can find it called \emph{tangent map}, \emph{total derivative} or \emph{derivative} of $F$. Since it ``pushes'' tangent vectors forward from the domain manifold to the codomain, it is also called the \emph{pushforward}. If that was not enough, different authors use different notations for it: besides $dF_p(v)$, you can find $F_* v_p$, $F'(p)$, $T_pF$, $DF(p)[v]$ or variations thereof.} + Let $F: M \to N$ be a smooth map between the smooth manifolds $M$ and $N$, and let $p\in M$. + The \emph{differential $d F_p$ of $F$ at $p$} is the map\footnote{In the differential geometry literature, the differential has many names: you can find it called \emph{tangent map}, \emph{total derivative} or \emph{derivative} of $F$. + Since it ``pushes'' tangent vectors forward from the domain manifold to the codomain, it is also called the \emph{pushforward}. If that was not enough, different authors use different notations for it: besides $dF_p(v)$, you can find $F_* v_p$, $F'(p)$, $T_pF$, $DF(p)[v]$ or variations thereof.} \begin{equation} d F_p : T_p M \to T_{F(p)} N, \qquad d F_p (v) (f) := v(f\circ F), \quad \forall f\in C^\infty(N). \end{equation} \end{definition} -Indeed, $v \mapsto d F_p (v)$ is a linear map (why?) defining a derivation at $F(p)$ acting on functions in $C^\infty(N)$ (why?) and, as such, is also a tangent vector in $T_F(p)N$. +Indeed, $v \mapsto d F_p (v)$ is a linear map (why?) defining a derivation at $F(p)$ acting on functions in $C^\infty(N)$ (why?) and, as such, is also a tangent vector in $T_{F(p)}N$. \begin{exercise} Answer the two \emph{(why?)} above. \end{exercise} +\begin{exercise} + Let $M = \R^3$ and $N = \R^2$ with coordinates $x=(x^1,x^2,x^3)$ and $y=(y^1,y^2)$ respectively. + Consider the function $F(x^1,x^2,x^3) = (x^1 x^3, (x^2)^2-1)$. + What is $d F_{(1,1,1)} \left(\frac{\partial}{\partial x^1} - 2 \frac{\partial}{\partial x^2}\right)$? +\end{exercise} \begin{theorem}[The chain rule on manifolds]\label{thm:chainrule_mfld} Let $M, N, P$ be smooth manifolds and $F: M \to N$, $G: N\to P$ be two smooth maps. Then @@ -558,7 +565,7 @@ \section{The differential of a smooth map}\label{sec:diffsmooth} &T_y : \R^n \to T_y\R^n,\quad T_y e_i' = \frac{\partial}{\partial y^i}\Big|_y \end{split}, \end{equation} -where $\{e_1,\ldots,e_m\}$ denotes the standard basis of $\R^m$ and $\{e_1',\ldots,e_m'\}$ denotes the standard basis of $\R^n$. +where $\{e_1,\ldots,e_m\}$ denotes the standard basis of $\R^m$ and $\{e_1',\ldots,e_n'\}$ denotes the standard basis of $\R^n$. On the one hand, we have the total derivative $Df(x):\R^m\to\R^n$ from multivariable calculus: a linear map, the Jacobian matrix of partial derivatives. On the other, we have the differential $df_x : T_x \R^m \to T_{f(x)}\R^m$ defined above: also a linear map, related to the Jacobian matrix of partial derivatives by Proposition~\ref{prop:DiffCoords}. @@ -618,7 +625,7 @@ \section{The differential of a smooth map}\label{sec:diffsmooth} For example, since $GL_n(\R)$ is an open submanifold of the vector space $\mathrm{Mat}(n, \R)$, we can identify its tangent space at each point $X\in GL_n(\R)$ with the full space of matrices $\mathrm{Mat}(n, \R)$. \begin{exercise}[Tangent space of a product manifold] - Let $M_1, \ldots, M_k$ be smooth manifolds (without boundary\sidenote[][-8em]{The statement is true also if one (only one!) of the $M_i$ spaces is a smooth manifold with boundary. If there is more than one manifold with boundary, the product space will have ``corners'' that cannot be mapped to half spaces and thus is not a smooth manifold, as a simple example you can consider the closed square $[0,1]\times [0,1]$.}), and for each $j$ let $\pi_j:M_1\times\cdots\times M_k \to M_j$ be the projection onto the $M_j$ factor. + Let $M_1, \ldots, M_k$ be smooth manifolds (without boundary\footnote{The statement is true also if one (only one!) of the $M_i$ spaces is a smooth manifold with boundary. If there is more than one manifold with boundary, the product space will have ``corners'' that cannot be mapped to half spaces and thus is not a smooth manifold, as a simple example you can consider the closed square $[0,1]\times [0,1]$.}), and for each $j$ let $\pi_j:M_1\times\cdots\times M_k \to M_j$ be the projection onto the $M_j$ factor. For any point $p=(p_1,\ldots,p_k)\in M_1\times\cdots\times M_k$, the map \begin{align} \sigma &: T_p(M_1\times\cdots\times M_k) \to T_p M_1\times\cdots\times T_p M_k\\ @@ -638,6 +645,10 @@ \section{The differential of a smooth map}\label{sec:diffsmooth} \section{Tangent vectors as tangents to curves} +\begin{marginfigure} + \includegraphics{2_2-curve-on-M.pdf} +\end{marginfigure} + Exercise~\ref{ex:tg_curve_iso} may have left some thoughts hanging in the air... From the look of it, it seems that there is a relation between tangent spaces and the velocity of a body moving with constant speed. In this section we will further explore these thoughts. @@ -646,9 +657,6 @@ \section{Tangent vectors as tangents to curves} If $M$ is a manifold with or without boundary, we define a \emph{(parametrized) curve in M} to be a smooth\footnote{Continuously differentiable would be enough, but assuming it smooth simplifies the exposition.} map $\gamma : I \to M$, where $I=(a,b)\subseteq\R$ is an interval. \marginnote{Conventionally, $b=-a=\epsilon>0$ (the reason will be clear in a second) and we denote the coordinate on $\R$ by $t$ and the derivative of $\gamma$ at a point $t$ by $\gamma'(t)$. We say that a curve \emph{starts at $p\in M$} if $0\in I$ and $\gamma(0) = p$.} \end{definition} -\begin{marginfigure} - \includegraphics{2_2-curve-on-M.pdf} -\end{marginfigure} Fix $t\in(a,b)$. A priori we have two different ways to define the \emph{velocity vector of $\gamma$ at a time $t$}, that is, an element $\gamma'(t) \in T_{\gamma(t)}M$: @@ -1269,7 +1277,7 @@ \section{Submanifolds} \begin{equation} p^\perp := \big\{q\in\R^3 \;\mid\; \left\langle p, q\right\rangle = 0\big\}, \end{equation} - where $\left\langle\cdot,\cdot\right\rangle$ is the usual Euclidean dot product. The latter directly comes from computing $dF_p$ and its kernel, which we essentially already did in Example~\ref{ex:s2}. + where $\left\langle\cdot,\cdot\right\rangle$ is the usual euclidean dot product. The latter directly comes from computing $dF_p$ and its kernel, which we essentially already did in Example~\ref{ex:s2}. Take a long deep breath and unfold the definitions in~\eqref{ex:tan_sph}, here it may be useful to draw a picture\footnote{Which is generally always the case in geometry and topology, and most other mathematical fields.}. Equation~\eqref{ex:tan_sph} implies that the tangent space to $\bS^2$ at a point $p$ is the plane tangent to $\bS^2$ at $p$, as claimed in Figure~\ref{fig:tan-embedded-sphere}. \end{example} diff --git a/aom.tex b/aom.tex index 8211332..a1f2bf7 100644 --- a/aom.tex +++ b/aom.tex @@ -213,7 +213,7 @@ \setlength{\parskip}{\baselineskip} Copyright \copyright\ \the\year\ \thanklessauthor - \par Version 0.14 -- \today + \par Version 0.15 -- \today \vfill \small{\doclicenseThis}