shitty_text.txt

When I find myself in times of trouble, Mother Mary comes to me
Speaking words of wisdom, let it be
And in my hour of darkness she is standing right in front of me
Speaking words of wisdom, let it be
Let it be, let it be, let it be, let it be
Whisper words of wisdom, let it be
And when the broken-hearted people living in the world agree
There will be an answer, let it be
For though they may be parted, there is still a chance that they will see
There will be an answer, let it be
Let it be, let it be, let it be, let it be
Yeah, there will be an answer, let it be
Let it be, let it be, let it be, let it be
Whisper words of wisdom, let it be
Let it be, let it be, let it be, yeah, let it be
Whisper words of wisdom, let it be
And when the night is cloudy there is still a light that shines on me
Shine until tomorrow, let it be
I wake up to the sound of music, Mother Mary comes to me
Speaking words of wisdom, let it be
Let it be, let it be, let it be, yeah, let it be
There will be an answer, let it be
Let it be, let it be, let it be, yeah, let it be
There will be an answer, let it be
Let it be, let it be, let it be, yeah, let it be
Whisper words of wisdom, let it be

Strawberry Fields Forever
The Beatles
Let me take you down
'Cause I'm going to Strawberry Fields
Nothing is real
And nothing to get hung about
Strawberry Fields forever
Living is easy with eyes closed
Misunderstanding all you see
It's getting hard to be someone
But it all works out
It doesn't matter much to me
Let me take you down
'Cause I'm going to Strawberry Fields
Nothing is real
And nothing to get hung about
Strawberry Fields forever
No one I think is in my tree
I mean it must be high or low
That is you can't, you know, tune in
But it's all right
That is, I think, it's not too bad
Let me take you down
'Cause I'm going to Strawberry Fields
Nothing is real
And nothing to get hung about
Strawberry Fields forever
Always, no, sometimes think it's me
But you know I know when it's a dream
I think, er, no, I mean, er, yes
But it's all wrong
That is I think I disagree
Let me take you down
'Cause I'm going to Strawberry Fields
Nothing is real
And nothing to get hung about
Strawberry Fields forever
Strawberry Fields forever
Strawberry Fields forever

If I Fell
The Beatles
If I fell in love with you
Would you promise to be true
And help me understand
'Cause I've been in love before
And I found that love was more
Than just holding hands
If I give my heart to you
I must be sure
From the very start
That you would love me more than her
If I trust in you oh please
Don't run and hide
If I love you too oh please
Don't hurt my pride like her
'Cause I couldn't stand the pain
And I would be sad if our new love was in vain
So I hope you see that I
Would love to love you
And that she will cry
When she learns we are two
'Cause I couldn't stand the pain
And I would be sad if our new love was in vain
So I hope you see that I
Would love to love you
And that she will cry
When she learns we are two
If I fell in love with you

Can't Help Falling in Love
Elvis Presley
Wise men say only fools rush in
But I can't help falling in love with you
Shall I stay?
Would it be a sin
If I can't help falling in love with you?
Like a river flows surely to the sea
Darling so it goes
Some things are meant to be
Take my hand, take my whole life too
For I can't help falling in love with you
Like a river flows surely to the sea
Darling so it goes
Some things are meant to be
Take my hand, take my whole life too
For I can't help falling in love with you
For I can't help falling in love with you
Source: LyricFind
Blackbird
The Beatles
Blackbird singing in the dead of night
Take these broken wings and learn to fly
All your life
You were only waiting for this moment to arise
Blackbird singing in the dead of night
Take these sunken eyes and learn to see
All your life
You were only waiting for this moment to be free
Blackbird fly, blackbird fly
Into the light of a dark black night
Blackbird fly, blackbird fly
Into the light of a dark black night
Blackbird singing in the dead of night
Take these broken wings and learn to fly
All your life
You were only waiting for this moment to arise
You were only waiting for this moment to arise
You were only waiting for this moment to arise
Source: LyricFind

A Day in the Life
The Beatles
"Dub the mic on the piano quite low this
Just keeping it like maracas, you know
You know those old pianos"
"Ok, we're on"
"Sugarplum fairy, sugarplum fairy"
I read the news today, oh boy
About a lucky man who made the grade
And though the news was rather sad
Well, I just had to laugh
I saw the photograph
He blew his mind out in a car
He didn't notice that the lights had changed
A crowd of people stood and stared
They'd seen his face before
Nobody was really sure if he was from the House of Lords
I saw a film today, oh boy
The English Army had just won the war
A crowd of people turned away
But I just had to look
Having read the book
I'd love to turn you on
"Five, six, seven, eight, nine
Ten, eleven, twelve, thirteen, fourteen
Fifteen, sixteen, seventeen, eighteen, nineteen
Twenty"
Woke up, fell out of bed
Dragged a comb across my head
Found my way downstairs and drank a cup
And looking up I noticed I was late
Found my coat and grabbed my hat
Made the bus in seconds flat
Made my way upstairs and had a smoke
And everybody spoke and I went into a dream
"Oh shit"
I read the news today, oh boy
Four thousand holes in Blackburn, Lancashire
And though the holes were rather small
They had to count them all
Now they know how many holes it takes to fill the Albert Hall
I'd love to turn you
"See the worst thing about doing this
Doing something like this
Is I think that at first people sort of are a bit suspicious
'You know, come on, what are you up to?'


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UNet-based-Denoising-Autoencoder/main.py
@n0obcoder n0obcoder Update main.py
0684b8b 4 minutes ago
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import sys, os, time, glob, time, pdb, cv2
import numpy as np
import torch
import torch.nn as nn
from tqdm import tqdm
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
plt.switch_backend('agg')

# import neccesary libraries for defining the optimizers
import torch.optim as optim
from torch.optim import lr_scheduler
from torchvision import transforms

from unet import UNet
from datasets import DAE_dataset

device = torch.device("cuda") if torch.cuda.is_available() else torch.device("cpu")
print('device: ', device)

def q(text = ''):
    print('> {}'.format(text))
    sys.exit()

models_dir = 'models'
if not os.path.exists(models_dir):
    os.mkdir(models_dir)

losses_dir = 'losses'
if not os.path.exists(losses_dir):
    os.mkdir(losses_dir)

def count_parameters(model):
    num_parameters = sum(p.numel() for p in model.parameters() if p.requires_grad)
    return num_parameters/1e6 # in terms of millions

def plot_losses(running_train_loss, running_val_loss, train_epoch_loss, val_epoch_loss, epoch):
    fig = plt.figure(figsize=(16,16))
    fig.suptitle('loss trends', fontsize=20)
    ax1 = fig.add_subplot(221)
    ax2 = fig.add_subplot(222)
    ax3 = fig.add_subplot(223)
    ax4 = fig.add_subplot(224)

    ax1.title.set_text('epoch train loss VS #epochs')
    ax1.set_xlabel('#epochs')
    ax1.set_ylabel('epoch train loss')
    ax1.plot(train_epoch_loss)
    
    ax2.title.set_text('epoch val loss VS #epochs')
    ax2.set_xlabel('#epochs')
    ax2.set_ylabel('epoch val loss')
    ax2.plot(val_epoch_loss)
 
    ax3.title.set_text('batch train loss VS #batches')
    ax3.set_xlabel('#batches')
    ax3.set_ylabel('batch train loss')
    ax3.plot(running_train_loss)

    ax4.title.set_text('batch val loss VS #batches')
    ax4.set_xlabel('#batches')
    ax4.set_ylabel('batch val loss')
    ax4.plot(running_val_loss)
    
    plt.savefig(os.path.join('losses','losses_{}.png'.format(str(epoch + 1).zfill(2))))

transform = transforms.Compose([transforms.ToPILImage(), transforms.ToTensor()])
    
train_dataset       = DAE_dataset(os.path.join('data', 'train'), transform = transform)
val_dataset         = DAE_dataset(os.path.join('data', 'val'), transform = transform)

print('\nlen(train_dataset) : ', len(train_dataset))
print('len(val_dataset)   : ', len(val_dataset))

batch_size = 8

train_loader = torch.utils.data.DataLoader(train_dataset, batch_size = batch_size, shuffle = True)
val_loader = torch.utils.data.DataLoader(val_dataset, batch_size = batch_size, shuffle = not True)

print('\nlen(train_loader): {}  @bs={}'.format(len(train_loader), batch_size))
print('len(val_loader)  : {}  @bs={}'.format(len(val_loader), batch_size))

resume = not False
if not resume:
    print('\nfrom scratch')
    model = UNet(n_classes = 1, depth = 3, padding = True).to(device)
    train_epoch_loss = []
    val_epoch_loss = []
    running_train_loss = []
    running_val_loss = []
    epochs_till_now = 0
else:
    ckpt_path = os.path.join('models', 'model01.pth')
    ckpt = torch.load(ckpt_path)
    model = ckpt['model'].to(device)
    print(f'\nckpt loaded: {ckpt_path}')
    losses = ckpt['losses']
    running_train_loss = losses['running_train_loss']
    running_val_loss = losses['running_val_loss']
    train_epoch_loss = losses['train_epoch_loss']
    val_epoch_loss = losses['val_epoch_loss']

    epochs_till_now = ckpt['epochs_till_now']

lr = 3e-5
optimizer = optim.Adam(filter(lambda p: p.requires_grad, model.parameters()), lr = lr)
loss_fn = nn.MSELoss()

log_interval = 25
epochs = 1

###
print('\nmodel has {} M parameters'.format(count_parameters(model)))
print(f'loss_fn        : {loss_fn}')
print(f'lr             : {lr}')
print(f'epochs_till_now: {epochs_till_now}')
print(f'epochs         : {epochs}')
###

for epoch in range(epochs_till_now, epochs_till_now+epochs):
    print('\n===== EPOCH {}/{} ====='.format(epochs_till_now + 1, epochs_till_now + epochs))    
    print('\nTRAINING...')
    epoch_train_start_time = time.time()
    model.train()
    for batch_idx, (imgs, noisy_imgs) in enumerate(train_loader):
        batch_start_time = time.time()
        imgs = imgs.to(device)
#         print(imgs.shape)
#         q()
        noisy_imgs = noisy_imgs.to(device)
        optimizer.zero_grad()
        out = model(noisy_imgs)
        loss = loss_fn(out, imgs)
        running_train_loss.append(loss.item())
        loss.backward()
        optimizer.step()
        if (batch_idx + 1)%log_interval == 0:
            batch_time = time.time() - batch_start_time
            m,s = divmod(batch_time, 60)
            print('train loss @batch_idx {}/{}: {} in {} mins {} secs'.format(str(batch_idx+1).zfill(len(str(len(train_loader)))), len(train_loader), loss.item(), int(m), round(s, 2)))
    
    train_epoch_loss.append(np.array(running_train_loss).mean())
    
    epoch_train_time = time.time() - epoch_train_start_time
    m,s = divmod(epoch_train_time, 60)
    h,m = divmod(m, 60)
    print('\nepoch train time: {} hrs {} mins {} secs'.format(int(h), int(m), int(s)))

    print('\nVALIDATION...')
    epoch_val_start_time = time.time()
    model.eval()
    with torch.no_grad():
        for batch_idx, (imgs, noisy_imgs) in enumerate(val_loader):
            
            imgs = imgs.to(device)
            noisy_imgs = noisy_imgs.to(device)
            out = model(noisy_imgs)
            loss = loss_fn(out, imgs)
            running_val_loss.append(loss.item())

            if (batch_idx + 1)%log_interval == 0:
                print('val loss   @batch_idx {}/{}: {}'.format(str(batch_idx+1).zfill(len(str(len(val_loader)))), len(val_loader), loss.item()))
    
    val_epoch_loss.append(np.array(running_val_loss).mean())

    epoch_val_time = time.time() - epoch_val_start_time
    m,s = divmod(epoch_val_time, 60)
    h,m = divmod(m, 60)
    print('\nepoch val   time: {} hrs {} mins {} secs'.format(int(h), int(m), int(s)))

    plot_losses(running_train_loss, running_val_loss, train_epoch_loss, val_epoch_loss,  epoch)   
    torch.save({'model': model, 'losses': {'running_train_loss': running_train_loss, 'running_val_loss': running_val_loss, 'train_epoch_loss': train_epoch_loss, 'val_epoch_loss': val_epoch_loss}, 'epochs_till_now': epoch+1}, os.path.join(models_dir, 'model{}.pth'.format(str(epoch + 1).zfill(2))))
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About




In the Ghetto
Elvis Presley
As the snow flies
On a cold and gray Chicago mornin'
A poor little baby child is born
In the ghetto (in the ghetto)
And his mama cries
'Cause if there's one thing that she don't need
It's another hungry mouth to feed
In the ghetto (in the ghetto)
People, don't you understand
The child needs a helping hand
Or he'll grow to be an angry young man some day?
Take a look at you and me
Are we too blind to see
Do we simply turn our heads, and look the other way?
Well, the world turns
And a hungry little boy with a runny nose
Plays in the street as the cold wind blows
In the ghetto (in the ghetto)
And his hunger burns
So he starts to roam the streets at night
And he learns how to steal, and he learns how to fight
In the ghetto (in the ghetto)
Then one night in desperation
A young man breaks away
He buys a gun, steals a car
Tries to run, but he don't get far
And his mama cries
As a crowd gathers 'round an angry young man
Face down on the street with a gun in his hand
In the ghetto (in the ghetto)
And as her young man dies
On a cold and gray Chicago mornin'
Another little baby child is born
In the ghetto (in the ghetto)
And his mama cries (in the ghetto)
(In the ghetto)
(Aah-aah)

…Baby One More Time
Britney Spears
Oh baby, baby
Oh baby, baby
Oh baby, baby, how was I supposed to know
That something wasn't right here?
Oh baby, baby, I shouldn't have let you go
And now you're out of sight, yeah
Show me how want it to be
Tell me, baby, 'cause I need to know now, oh because
My loneliness is killing me (and I)
I must confess I still believe (still believe)
When I'm not with you I lose my mind
Give me a sign
Hit me, baby, one more time
Oh baby, baby
The reason I breathe is you
Boy, you got me blinded
Oh, pretty baby
There's nothing that I wouldn't do
It's not the way I planned it
Show me how you want it to be
Tell me, baby, 'cause I need to know now, oh because
My loneliness is killing me (and I)
I must confess I still believe (still believe)
When I'm not with you I lose my mind
Give me a sign
Hit me, baby, one more time
Oh baby, baby (oh oh)
Oh baby, baby (yeah)
Oh baby, baby, how was I supposed to know?
Oh pretty baby, I shouldn't have let you go
I must confess, that my loneliness is killing me now
Don't you know I still believe
That you will be here
And give me a sign
Hit me, baby, one more time
My loneliness is killing me (and I)
I must confess I still believe (still believe)
When I'm not with you I lose my mind
Give me a sign
Hit me, baby, one more time
I must confess, that my loneliness is killing me now
Don't you know I still believe
That you will be here
And give me a sign
Hit me, baby, one more time

I Don't Want to Miss a Thing
Aerosmith
I could stay awake just to hear you breathing
Watch you smile while you are sleeping
While you're far away dreaming
I could spend my life in this sweet surrender
I could stay lost in this moment forever
Every moment spent with you is a moment I treasure
Don't want to close my eyes
I don't want to fall asleep
'Cause I'd miss you baby
And I don't want to miss a thing
'Cause even when I dream of you
The sweetest dream will never do
I'd still miss you baby
And I don't want to miss a thing
Lying close to you feeling your heart beating
And I'm wondering what you're dreaming
Wondering if it's me you're seeing
Then I kiss your eyes
And thank God we're together
I just want to stay with you in this moment forever
Forever and ever
Don't want to close my eyes
I don't want to fall asleep
'Cause I'd miss you baby
And I don't want to miss a thing
'Cause even when I dream of you
The sweetest dream will never do
I'd still miss you baby
And I don't want to miss a thing
I don't want to miss one smile
I don't want to miss one kiss
I just want to be with you
Right here with you, just like this
I just want to hold you close
Feel your heart so close to mine
And just stay here in this moment
For all the rest of time
Don't want to close my eyes
I don't want to fall asleep
'Cause I'd miss you baby
And I don't want to miss a thing
'Cause even when I dream of you
The sweetest dream will never do
I'd still miss you baby
And I don't want to miss a thing
Don't want to close my eyes
I don't want to fall asleep
'Cause I'd miss you baby
I don't want to miss a thing
'Cause even when I dream of you
The sweetest dream will never do
I'd still miss you baby
And I don't want to miss a thing

Dream On
Aerosmith
Every time when I look in the mirror
All these lines on my face getting clearer
The past is gone
It went by, like dusk to dawn
Isn't that the way
Everybody's got the dues in life to pay
I know nobody knows
Where it comes and where it goes
I know it's everybody sin
You got to lose to know how to win
Half my life
Is books, written pages
Live and learn from fools and
From sages
You know it's true, oh
All these feelings come back to you
Sing with me, sing for the years
Sing for the laughter, sing for the tears
Sing with me, just for today
Maybe tomorrow, the good Lord will take you away
Yeah, sing with me, sing for the year
Sing for the laughter, sing for the tear
Sing with me, just for today
Maybe tomorrow, the good Lord will take you away
Dream on
Dream on4:27
Dream on
Dream until your dreams come true
Dream on
Dream on
Dream on
Dream until your dreams come true
Dream on
Dream on
Dream on
Dream on
Dream on
Dream on
Dream on
Sing with me, sing for the year
Sing for the laughter, sing for the tear
Sing with me, just for today
Maybe tomorrow, the good Lord will take you away
Sing with me, sing for the year
Sing for the laughter, sing for the tear
Sing with me, just for today
Maybe tomorrow, the good Lord will take you away

There are places I'll remember
All my life, though some have changed
Some forever, not for better
Some have gone, and some remain
All these places had their moments
With lovers and friends, I still can recall
Some are dead, and some are living
In my life, I've loved them all
But of all these friends and lovers
There is no one compares with you
And these memories lose their meaning
When I think of love as something new
Though I know I'll never lose affection
For people and things that went before
I know I'll often stop and think about them
In my life, I'll love you more
Though I know I'll never lose affection
For people and things that went before
I know I'll often stop and think about them
In my life I'll love you more
In my life I'll love you more

"Shine On You Crazy Diamond (I-V)"

Remember when you were young, you shone like the sun.
Shine on you crazy diamond.
Now there's a look in your eyes, like black holes in the sky.
Shine on you crazy diamond.
You were caught in the crossfire of childhood and stardom, blown on the steel breeze.
Come on you target for faraway laughter, come on you stranger, you legend, you martyr, and shine!

You reached for the secret too soon, you cried for the moon.
Shine on you crazy diamond.
Threatened by shadows at night, and exposed in the light.
Shine on you crazy diamond.
Well you wore out your welcome with random precision, rode on the steel breeze.
Come on you raver, you seer of visions, come on you painter, you piper, you prisoner, and shine!

Shine On You Crazy Diamond” was written about Syd Barrett, the former member of the band, who got mentally ill after the release of their first album. He left the band and was replaced by David Gilmour.
This song, under the name "Shine On", has been played by the band for more than a year before the release, because they wanted to polish their sound during live shows.
During the final mixing sessions of this song in June of 1975, Syd Barrett came into the studios. He wasn't recognized at first, but then the band let him stay for a while. Richard Wright recalled, "He just—for some incredible reason—picked the very day that we were doing a song which was about him."

Drive Home
Steven Wilson
Cold windowpane
A car upturned in the rain
Wait on in vain
Don't try to bear the blame
Deal with the pain
Dust down your wings again
You need to clear away
All the jetsam in your brain
And face the truth
Well love can make amends
But while the darkness always ends
You're still alone
So drive home
Pause without end
A moment in time suspends
How could she leave?
Release all your guilt and breathe
Give up your pain
Hold up your head again
You need to clear away
All the jetsam in your brain
And face the truth
Well love can make amends
While the darkness always ends
You're still alone
So drive home
Drive home
Drive home
Drive home
Drive home
Drive home
Drive home
Drive home
Drive home
(Drive home)


Hiding My Heart
Adele
This is how the story went
I met someone by accident
It blew me away
Blew me away
It was in the darkest of my days
When you took my sorrow and you took my pain
And buried them away, you buried them away
I wish I could lay down beside you
When the day is done
And wake up to your face against the morning sun
But like everything I've ever known
You disappear one day
So I spend my whole life hiding my heart away
Dropped you off at the train station
Put a kiss on top of your head
Watch you wave
And watched you wave
Then I went on home to my skyscrapers
And neon lights and waiting papers
That I call home
I call that home
I wish I could lay down beside you
When the day is done
And wake up to your face against the morning sun
But like everything I've ever known
You disappear one day
So I spend my whole life hiding my heart away, away
Woke up feeling heavy-hearted
I'm going back to where I started
The morning rain, the morning rain
And though I wish that you were here
On that same old road that brought me here
It's calling me home, It's calling me home
I wish I could lay down beside you
When the day is done
And wake up to your face against the morning sun
But like everything I've ever known
You disappear one day
So I spend my whole life hiding my heart away
I can't spend my whole life hiding my heart away


Afreen Afreen
Rahat Fateh Ali Khan, Momina Mustehsan
Sa Ni Dha Ga Ni Ni Ni Dha
Dha Ni Sa Ga Ma Ga Sa
Sa Ni Dha Ga Ni Ni Ni Dha
Dha Ni Dha Ga Ma Ma
Sa Ga Ma Ga Dha Dha Ma Dha Ni
Dha Ni Dha Ni Dha Ni Dha
Ni Dha Pa, Pa Dha Ma
Ma Pa Ga
Ga Re Ga Ma Ga
Pa Ma Ga Re
Afreen Afreen Afreeeen
Afreen Afreen Afreeeen
Afreen Afreen Afreeeen
Afreen Afreen Afreeeen
Husn-E-Janaa Kee Tareef Mumkin Nahi
Afreen Afreen Afreeeen Afreeen
Tu Bhee Dekhe Agar To Kahe Hamnsheeen
Afreen Afreen Afreeeen
Afreen Afreen Afreeeen
Afreen Afreen Afreeeen
Afreen Afreen Afreeeen
Aisaa Dekhaa Nahi Khubsoorat Koi
Jism Jaise Hai Ajanta Kee Moorat Koi
Jism Jaise Nigahon Pe Jaadu Koi
Jism Naghma Koi Jism Khushboo Koi
Jism Jaise Machalte Hoye Ragnee
Jism Jaise Mehaktee Hoayee Chandni
Jism Jaise Ke Khilta Hoyaa Ek Chaman
Jism Jaise Ke Sooraj Ki Pehli Kiran
Jism Tersha Hoya Dikashoo Dilnasheen
Sandaleeeen Sandaleen Marmareeeeen Marmareeeeen
Sandaleeeen Sandaleen Marmareeeeen Marmareeeeen
Afreen Afreen Afreen Afreen
Afreen Afreen Afreen Afreen
Husne Janaaa Kee Tareef Mumkin Nahi
Afreen Afreen Afreen Afreen
Tu Bhee Dekhe Agar To Kahe Hamnsheeen
Afreen Afreen Afreen Afreen
Usne Janaaa Kee Tareef Mumkin Nahi
Usne Janaaa Kee Tareef Mumkin Nahi
Afreen Afreen Afreen Afreen
Afreen Afreen Afreen Afreen
Afreen Afreen Afreen Afreen
Afreen Afreen Afreen Afreen
Ankheen Dekheen To Main Dekhtaa Rah Giyaa
Jaam Dooo Ore Doonoon Hee Doo Ateshaaaa
Ankheen Yaa Makadeee Kaee Doo Baab Hain
Ankheen Inn Ko Kahoon Yaa Kahoon Khawab Hain
Ankheen Neechee Hoyee To Haya Baan Gayeen
Ankheen Oonchee Hoyee To Dua Baan Gayeen
Ankheen Uth Kar Jhukeen Too Ada Baan Gayeen
Ankheen Jhuk Kar Utheen To Qadaa Baan Gayeen
Ankheen Jin Main Hain Kaid Asmaan O Zameeeeen
Nargasee Nargaseee Surmayee Surmayeee
Nargasee Nargaseee Surmayee Surmayeee
Afreen Afreen Afreen Afreen
Afreen Afreen Afreen Afreen
Afreen Afreen Afreen Afreen
Afreen Afreen Afreen Afreen


Asia (/ˈeɪʒə, ˈeɪʃə/ (About this soundlisten)) is Earth's largest and most populous continent, located primarily in the Eastern and Northern Hemispheres. It shares the continental landmass of Eurasia with the continent of Europe and the continental landmass of Afro-Eurasia with both Europe and Africa. Asia covers an area of 44,579,000 square kilometres (17,212,000 sq mi), about 30% of Earth's total land area and 8.7% of the Earth's total surface area. The continent, which has long been home to the majority of the human population,[4] was the site of many of the first civilizations. Asia is notable for not only its overall large size and population, but also dense and large settlements, as well as vast barely populated regions. Its 4.5 billion people (as of June 2019) constitute roughly 60% of the world's population.[5]

In general terms, Asia is bounded on the east by the Pacific Ocean, on the south by the Indian Ocean, and on the north by the Arctic Ocean. The border of Asia with Europe is a historical and cultural construct, as there is no clear physical and geographical separation between them. It is somewhat arbitrary and has moved since its first conception in classical antiquity. The division of Eurasia into two continents reflects East–West cultural, linguistic, and ethnic differences, some of which vary on a spectrum rather than with a sharp dividing line. The most commonly accepted boundaries place Asia to the east of the Suez Canal separating it from Africa; and to the east of the Turkish Straits, the Ural Mountains and Ural River, and to the south of the Caucasus Mountains and the Caspian and Black Seas, separating it from Europe.[6]

China and the Indian subcontinent alternated in being the largest economies in the world from 1 to 1800 CE. China was a major economic power and attracted many to the east,[7][8][9] and for many the legendary wealth and prosperity of the ancient culture of India personified Asia,[10] attracting European commerce, exploration and colonialism. The accidental discovery of a trans-Atlantic route from Europe to America by Columbus while in search for a route to India demonstrates this deep fascination. The Silk Road became the main east–west trading route in the Asian hinterlands while the Straits of Malacca stood as a major sea route. Asia has exhibited economic dynamism (particularly East Asia) as well as robust population growth during the 20th century, but overall population growth has since fallen.[11] Asia was the birthplace of most of the world's mainstream religions including Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Jainism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, Christianity, Islam, Sikhism, as well as many other religions.

Given its size and diversity, the concept of Asia—a name dating back to classical antiquity—may actually have more to do with human geography than physical geography.[citation needed] Asia varies greatly across and within its regions with regard to ethnic groups, cultures, environments, economics, historical ties and government systems. It also has a mix of many different climates ranging from the equatorial south via the hot desert in the Middle East, temperate areas in the east and the continental centre to vast subarctic and polar areas in Siberia.


Contents
1	Definition and boundaries
1.1	Asia–Africa boundary
1.2	Asia–Europe boundary
1.3	Asia–Oceania boundary
1.4	Ongoing definition
2	Etymology
2.1	Bronze Age
2.2	Classical antiquity
3	History
4	Geography and climate
4.1	Main regions
4.2	Climate change
5	Economy
6	Tourism
7	Demographics
7.1	Languages
7.2	Religions
7.2.1	Abrahamic
7.2.2	Indian and East Asian religions
8	Modern conflicts
9	Culture
9.1	Nobel prizes
10	Political geography
11	See also
12	References
13	Bibliography
14	Further reading
15	External links
Definition and boundaries
Further information on Asian borders: Geography of Asia § Boundary, Boundaries between continents, List of transcontinental countries § Asia and Europe, and Copenhagen criteria
Asia–Africa boundary
The boundary between Asia and Africa is the Red Sea, the Gulf of Suez, and the Suez Canal.[citation needed] This makes Egypt a transcontinental country, with the Sinai peninsula in Asia and the remainder of the country in Africa.

Asia–Europe boundary

Statue representing Asia at Palazzo Ferreria, in Valletta, Malta
The border between Asia and Europe was historically defined by European academics.[12] The Don River became unsatisfactory to northern Europeans when Peter the Great, king of the Tsardom of Russia, defeating rival claims of Sweden and the Ottoman Empire to the eastern lands, and armed resistance by the tribes of Siberia, synthesized a new Russian Empire extending to the Ural Mountains and beyond, founded in 1721. The major geographical theorist of the empire was actually a former Swedish prisoner-of-war, taken at the Battle of Poltava in 1709 and assigned to Tobolsk, where he associated with Peter's Siberian official, Vasily Tatishchev, and was allowed freedom to conduct geographical and anthropological studies in preparation for a future book.[citation needed]

In Sweden, five years after Peter's death, in 1730 Philip Johan von Strahlenberg published a new atlas proposing the Ural Mountains as the border of Asia. Tatishchev announced that he had proposed the idea to von Strahlenberg. The latter had suggested the Emba River as the lower boundary. Over the next century various proposals were made until the Ural River prevailed in the mid-19th century. The border had been moved perforce from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea into which the Ural River projects.[13] The border between the Black Sea and the Caspian is usually placed along the crest of the Caucasus Mountains, although it is sometimes placed further north.[12]

Asia–Oceania boundary
The border between Asia and the region of Oceania is usually placed somewhere in the Malay Archipelago. The Maluku Islands in Indonesia are often considered to lie on the border of southeast Asia, with New Guinea, to the east of the islands, being wholly part of Oceania. The terms Southeast Asia and Oceania, devised in the 19th century, have had several vastly different geographic meanings since their inception. The chief factor in determining which islands of the Malay Archipelago are Asian has been the location of the colonial possessions of the various empires there (not all European). Lewis and Wigen assert, "The narrowing of 'Southeast Asia' to its present boundaries was thus a gradual process."[14]

Ongoing definition

Afro-Eurasia shown in green
Geographical Asia is a cultural artifact of European conceptions of the world, beginning with the Ancient Greeks, being imposed onto other cultures, an imprecise concept causing endemic contention about what it means. Asia does not exactly correspond to the cultural borders of its various types of constituents.[15]

From the time of Herodotus a minority of geographers have rejected the three-continent system (Europe, Africa, Asia) on the grounds that there is no substantial physical separation between them.[16] For example, Sir Barry Cunliffe, the emeritus professor of European archeology at Oxford, argues that Europe has been geographically and culturally merely "the western excrescence of the continent of Asia".[17]

Geographically, Asia is the major eastern constituent of the continent of Eurasia with Europe being a northwestern peninsula of the landmass. Asia, Europe and Africa make up a single continuous landmass—Afro-Eurasia (except for the Suez Canal)—and share a common continental shelf. Almost all of Europe and the better part of Asia sit atop the Eurasian Plate, adjoined on the south by the Arabian and Indian Plate and with the easternmost part of Siberia (east of the Chersky Range) on the North American Plate.

Etymology

Ptolemy's Asia
The idea of a place called "Asia" was originally a concept of Greek civilization,[18] though this might not correspond to the entire continent currently known by that name. The English word comes from Latin literature, where it has the same form, "Asia". Whether "Asia" in other languages comes from Latin of the Roman Empire is much less certain, and the ultimate source of the Latin word is uncertain, though several theories have been published. One of the first classical writers to use Asia as a name of the whole continent was Pliny.[19] This metonymical change in meaning is common and can be observed in some other geographical names, such as Scandinavia (from Scania).

Bronze Age
Before Greek poetry, the Aegean Sea area was in a Greek Dark Age, at the beginning of which syllabic writing was lost and alphabetic writing had not begun. Prior to then in the Bronze Age the records of the Assyrian Empire, the Hittite Empire and the various Mycenaean states of Greece mention a region undoubtedly Asia, certainly in Anatolia, including if not identical to Lydia. These records are administrative and do not include poetry.

The Mycenaean states were destroyed about 1200 BCE by unknown agents although one school of thought assigns the Dorian invasion to this time. The burning of the palaces baked clay diurnal administrative records written in a Greek syllabic script called Linear B, deciphered by a number of interested parties, most notably by a young World War II cryptographer, Michael Ventris, subsequently assisted by the scholar, John Chadwick. A major cache discovered by Carl Blegen at the site of ancient Pylos included hundreds of male and female names formed by different methods.

Some of these are of women held in servitude (as study of the society implied by the content reveals). They were used in trades, such as cloth-making, and usually came with children. The epithet lawiaiai, "captives", associated with some of them identifies their origin. Some are ethnic names. One in particular, aswiai, identifies "women of Asia".[20] Perhaps they were captured in Asia, but some others, Milatiai, appear to have been of Miletus, a Greek colony, which would not have been raided for slaves by Greeks. Chadwick suggests that the names record the locations where these foreign women were purchased.[21] The name is also in the singular, Aswia, which refers both to the name of a country and to a female of it. There is a masculine form, aswios. This Aswia appears to have been a remnant of a region known to the Hittites as Assuwa, centered on Lydia, or "Roman Asia". This name, Assuwa, has been suggested as the origin for the name of the continent "Asia".[22] The Assuwa league was a confederation of states in western Anatolia, defeated by the Hittites under Tudhaliya I around 1400 BCE.

Alternatively, the etymology of the term may be from the Akkadian word (w)aṣû(m), which means 'to go outside' or 'to ascend', referring to the direction of the sun at sunrise in the Middle East and also likely connected with the Phoenician word asa meaning east. This may be contrasted to a similar etymology proposed for Europe, as being from Akkadian erēbu(m) 'to enter' or 'set' (of the sun).

T.R. Reid supports this alternative etymology, noting that the ancient Greek name must have derived from asu, meaning 'east' in Assyrian (ereb for Europe meaning 'west').[18] The ideas of Occidental (form Latin Occidens 'setting') and Oriental (from Latin Oriens for 'rising') are also European invention, synonymous with Western and Eastern.[18] Reid further emphasizes that it explains the Western point of view of placing all the peoples and cultures of Asia into a single classification, almost as if there were a need for setting the distinction between Western and Eastern civilizations on the Eurasian continent.[18] Kazuo Ogura and Tenshin Okakura are two outspoken Japanese figures on the subject.[18]

Classical antiquity

The province of Asia highlighted (in red) within the Roman Empire.
Latin Asia and Greek Ἀσία appear to be the same word. Roman authors translated Ἀσία as Asia. The Romans named a province Asia, located in western Anatolia (in modern-day Turkey). There was an Asia Minor and an Asia Major located in modern-day Iraq. As the earliest evidence of the name is Greek, it is likely circumstantially that Asia came from Ἀσία, but ancient transitions, due to the lack of literary contexts, are difficult to catch in the act. The most likely vehicles were the ancient geographers and historians, such as Herodotus, who were all Greek. Ancient Greek certainly evidences early and rich uses of the name.[23]

The first continental use of Asia is attributed to Herodotus (about 440 BCE), not because he innovated it, but because his Histories are the earliest surviving prose to describe it in any detail. He defines it carefully,[24] mentioning the previous geographers whom he had read, but whose works are now missing. By it he means Anatolia and the Persian Empire, in contrast to Greece and Egypt.

Herodotus comments that he is puzzled as to why three women's names were "given to a tract which is in reality one" (Europa, Asia, and Libya, referring to Africa), stating that most Greeks assumed that Asia was named after the wife of Prometheus (i.e. Hesione), but that the Lydians say it was named after Asies, son of Cotys, who passed the name on to a tribe at Sardis.[25] In Greek mythology, "Asia" (Ἀσία) or "Asie" (Ἀσίη) was the name of a "Nymph or Titan goddess of Lydia".[26]

In ancient Greek religion, places were under the care of female divinities, parallel to guardian angels. The poets detailed their doings and generations in allegoric language salted with entertaining stories, which subsequently playwrights transformed into classical Greek drama and became "Greek mythology". For example, Hesiod mentions the daughters of Tethys and Ocean, among whom are a "holy company", "who with the Lord Apollo and the Rivers have youths in their keeping".[27] Many of these are geographic: Doris, Rhodea, Europa, Asia. Hesiod explains:[28]

For there are three-thousand neat-ankled daughters of Ocean who are dispersed far and wide, and in every place alike serve the earth and the deep waters.

The Iliad (attributed by the ancient Greeks to Homer) mentions two Phrygians (the tribe that replaced the Luvians in Lydia) in the Trojan War named Asios (an adjective meaning "Asian");[29] and also a marsh or lowland containing a marsh in Lydia as ασιος.[30]

History
Main article: History of Asia

The Silk Road connected civilizations across Asia[31]

The Mongol Empire at its greatest extent. The gray area is the later Timurid Empire.
The history of Asia can be seen as the distinct histories of several peripheral coastal regions: East Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia and the Middle East, linked by the interior mass of the Central Asian steppes.

The coastal periphery was home to some of the world's earliest known civilizations, each of them developing around fertile river valleys. The civilizations in Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley and the Yellow River shared many similarities. These civilizations may well have exchanged technologies and ideas such as mathematics and the wheel. Other innovations, such as writing, seem to have been developed individually in each area. Cities, states and empires developed in these lowlands.

The central steppe region had long been inhabited by horse-mounted nomads who could reach all areas of Asia from the steppes. The earliest postulated expansion out of the steppe is that of the Indo-Europeans, who spread their languages into the Middle East, South Asia, and the borders of China, where the Tocharians resided. The northernmost part of Asia, including much of Siberia, was largely inaccessible to the steppe nomads, owing to the dense forests, climate and tundra. These areas remained very sparsely populated.

The center and the peripheries were mostly kept separated by mountains and deserts. The Caucasus and Himalaya mountains and the Karakum and Gobi deserts formed barriers that the steppe horsemen could cross only with difficulty. While the urban city dwellers were more advanced technologically and socially, in many cases they could do little in a military aspect to defend against the mounted hordes of the steppe. However, the lowlands did not have enough open grasslands to support a large horsebound force; for this and other reasons, the nomads who conquered states in China, India, and the Middle East often found themselves adapting to the local, more affluent societies.

The Islamic Caliphate's defeats of the Byzantine and Persian empires led to West Asia and southern parts of Central Asia and western parts of South Asia under its control during its conquests of the 7th century. The Mongol Empire conquered a large part of Asia in the 13th century, an area extending from China to Europe. Before the Mongol invasion, Song dynasty reportedly had approximately 120 million citizens; the 1300 census which followed the invasion reported roughly 60 million people.[32]

The Black Death, one of the most devastating pandemics in human history, is thought to have originated in the arid plains of central Asia, where it then travelled along the Silk Road.[33]

The Russian Empire began to expand into Asia from the 17th century, and would eventually take control of all of Siberia and most of Central Asia by the end of the 19th century. The Ottoman Empire controlled Anatolia, most of the Middle East, North Africa and the Balkans from the mid 16th century onwards. In the 17th century, the Manchu conquered China and established the Qing dynasty. The Islamic Mughal Empire and the Hindu Maratha Empire controlled much of India in the 16th and 18th centuries respectively.[34] The Empire of Japan controlled most of East Asia and much of Southeast Asia, New Guinea and the Pacific islands until the end of World War II.


Map of western, southern, and central Asia in 1885[35]

 

The map of Asia in 1796, which also included the continent of Australia (then known as New Holland).

 

1890 map of Asia

Geography and climate
Main articles: Geography of Asia and Climate of Asia
See also: Category:Biota of Asia

The Himalayan range is home to some of the planet's highest peaks.
Asia is the largest continent on Earth. It covers 9% of the Earth's total surface area (or 30% of its land area), and has the longest coastline, at 62,800 kilometres (39,022 mi). Asia is generally defined as comprising the eastern four-fifths of Eurasia. It is located to the east of the Suez Canal and the Ural Mountains, and south of the Caucasus Mountains (or the Kuma–Manych Depression) and the Caspian and Black Seas.[6][36] It is bounded on the east by the Pacific Ocean, on the south by the Indian Ocean and on the north by the Arctic Ocean. Asia is subdivided into 48 countries, three of them (Russia, Kazakhstan and Turkey) having part of their land in Europe.

Asia has extremely diverse climates and geographic features. Climates range from arctic and subarctic in Siberia to tropical in southern India and Southeast Asia. It is moist across southeast sections, and dry across much of the interior. Some of the largest daily temperature ranges on Earth occur in western sections of Asia. The monsoon circulation dominates across southern and eastern sections, due to the presence of the Himalayas forcing the formation of a thermal low which draws in moisture during the summer. Southwestern sections of the continent are hot. Siberia is one of the coldest places in the Northern Hemisphere, and can act as a source of arctic air masses for North America. The most active place on Earth for tropical cyclone activity lies northeast of the Philippines and south of Japan. The Gobi Desert is in Mongolia and the Arabian Desert stretches across much of the Middle East. The Yangtze River in China is the longest river in the continent. The Himalayas between Nepal and China is the tallest mountain range in the world. Tropical rainforests stretch across much of southern Asia and coniferous and deciduous forests lie farther north.


Kerala backwaters

 

Mongolian steppe

 

South China Karst

 

Altai Mountains

 

Hunza Valley

Main regions
Central Asia (The 'stans)
East Asia (Far East)
North Asia (Siberia)
South Asia (Indian subcontinent)
Southeast Asia (East Indies and Indochina)
Western Asia (The Middle East or Near East)
Climate change
A survey carried out in 2010 by global risk analysis farm Maplecroft identified 16 countries that are extremely vulnerable to climate change. Each nation's vulnerability was calculated using 42 socio, economic and environmental indicators, which identified the likely climate change impacts during the next 30 years. The Asian countries of Bangladesh, India, Vietnam, Thailand, Pakistan and Sri Lanka were among the 16 countries facing extreme risk from climate change. Some shifts are already occurring. For example, in tropical parts of India with a semi-arid climate, the temperature increased by 0.4 °C between 1901 and 2003. A 2013 study by the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) aimed to find science-based, pro-poor approaches and techniques that would enable Asia's agricultural systems to cope with climate change, while benefitting poor and vulnerable farmers. The study's recommendations ranged from improving the use of climate information in local planning and strengthening weather-based agro-advisory services, to stimulating diversification of rural household incomes and providing incentives to farmers to adopt natural resource conservation measures to enhance forest cover, replenish groundwater and use renewable energy.[37]

Economy
Main articles: Economy of Asia, List of Asian countries by GDP, List of countries in Asia-Pacific by GDP (nominal), and List of Asian and Pacific countries by GDP (PPP)

Singapore has one of the busiest ports in the world and is the world's fourth largest foreign exchange trading center.
Rank	Country	GDP (PPP, Peak Year)
millions of USD	Peak Year
1	 China	27,331,166	2019
2	 India	11,468,022	2019
3	 Japan	5,749,550	2019
4	 Russia	4,357,759	2019
5	 Indonesia	3,743,159	2019
6	 Turkey	2,292,511	2018
7	 South Korea	2,229,779	2019
8	 Saudi Arabia	1,924,253	2019
9	 Iran	1,639,561	2017
10	 Thailand	1,390,484	2019
Rank	Country	GDP (nominal, Peak Year)
millions of USD	Peak Year
1	 China	14,216,503	2019
2	 Japan	6,203,212	2012
3	 India	2,971,996	2019
4	 Russia	2,289,244	2013
5	 South Korea	1,656,674	2019
6	 Indonesia	1,100,911	2019
7	 Turkey	950,328	2013
8	 Saudi Arabia	782,483	2018
9	 Taiwan	601,431	2019
10	 Iran	577,214	2011
Asia has the largest continental economy by both GDP Nominal and PPP in the world, and is the fastest growing economic region.[38] As of 2018, the largest economies in Asia are China, Japan, India, Russia, South Korea, Indonesia and Turkey based on GDP in both nominal and PPP.[39] Based on Global Office Locations 2011, Asia dominated the office locations with 4 of the top 5 being in Asia: Hong Kong, Singapore, Tokyo and Seoul. Around 68 percent of international firms have office in Hong Kong.[40]

In the late 1990s and early 2000s, the economies of China[41] and India have been growing rapidly, both with an average annual growth rate of more than 8%. Other recent very-high-growth nations in Asia include Israel, Malaysia, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Vietnam, Mongolia, Uzbekistan and the Philippines, and mineral-rich nations such as Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Iran, Brunei, the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain and Oman.

According to economic historian Angus Maddison in his book The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective, India had the world's largest economy during 0 BCE and 1000 BCE.[42][43] China was the largest and most advanced economy on earth for much of recorded history,[44][45][46] until the British Empire (excluding India) overtook it in the mid-19th century. For several decades in the late twentieth century Japan was the largest economy in Asia and second-largest of any single nation in the world, after surpassing the Soviet Union (measured in net material product) in 1986 and Germany in 1968. (NB: A number of supernational economies are larger, such as the European Union (EU), the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) or APEC). This ended in 2010 when China overtook Japan to become the world's second largest economy.

In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Japan's GDP was almost as large (current exchange rate method) as that of the rest of Asia combined.[47] In 1995, Japan's economy nearly equaled that of the US as the largest economy in the world for a day, after the Japanese currency reached a record high of 79 yen/US$. Economic growth in Asia since World War II to the 1990s had been concentrated in Japan as well as the four regions of South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Singapore located in the Pacific Rim, known as the Asian tigers, which have now all received developed country status, having the highest GDP per capita in Asia.[48]


Mumbai is one of the most populous cities on the continent. The city is an infrastructure and tourism hub, and plays a crucial role in the Economy of India.
It is forecasted that India will overtake Japan in terms of nominal GDP by 2020.[49] By 2027, according to Goldman Sachs, China will have the largest economy in the world. Several trade blocs exist, with the most developed being the Association of Southeast Asian Nations.

Asia is the largest continent in the world by a considerable margin, and it is rich in natural resources, such as petroleum, forests, fish, water, rice, copper and silver. Manufacturing in Asia has traditionally been strongest in East and Southeast Asia, particularly in China, Taiwan, South Korea, Japan, India, the Philippines, and Singapore. Japan and South Korea continue to dominate in the area of multinational corporations, but increasingly the PRC and India are making significant inroads. Many companies from Europe, North America, South Korea and Japan have operations in Asia's developing countries to take advantage of its abundant supply of cheap labour and relatively developed infrastructure.

According to Citigroup 9 of 11 Global Growth Generators countries came from Asia driven by population and income growth. They are Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Iraq, Mongolia, Philippines, Sri Lanka and Vietnam.[50] Asia has three main financial centers: Hong Kong, Tokyo and Singapore. Call centers and business process outsourcing (BPOs) are becoming major employers in India and the Philippines due to the availability of a large pool of highly skilled, English-speaking workers. The increased use of outsourcing has assisted the rise of India and the China as financial centers. Due to its large and extremely competitive information technology industry, India has become a major hub for outsourcing.

In 2010, Asia had 3.3 million millionaires (people with net worth over US$1 million excluding their homes), slightly below North America with 3.4 million millionaires. Last year Asia had toppled Europe.[51] Citigroup in The Wealth Report 2012 stated that Asian centa-millionaire overtook North America's wealth for the first time as the world's "economic center of gravity" continued moving east. At the end of 2011, there were 18,000 Asian people mainly in Southeast Asia, China and Japan who have at least $100 million in disposable assets, while North America with 17,000 people and Western Europe with 14,000 people.[52]

Tourism
A Thai temple complex with several ornate buildings and a stupa, and a lot of visitors
Wat Phra Kaeo in the Grand Palace is among Bangkok's major tourist attractions.
With growing Regional Tourism with domination of Chinese visitors, MasterCard has released Global Destination Cities Index 2013 with 10 of 20 are dominated by Asia and Pacific Region Cities and also for the first time a city of a country from Asia (Bangkok) set in the top-ranked with 15.98 international visitors.[53]

Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Asia
Historical populations
Year	Pop.	±%
1500	243,000,000	—    
1700	436,000,000	+79.4%
1900	947,000,000	+117.2%
1950	1,402,000,000	+48.0%
1999	3,634,000,000	+159.2%
2016	4,462,676,731	+22.8%
Source: "UN report 2004 data" (PDF).
The figure for 2016 is provided by the 2017 revision of the World Population Prospects[2].

Graph showing population by continent as a percentage of world population (1750–2005)
East Asia had by far the strongest overall Human Development Index (HDI) improvement of any region in the world, nearly doubling average HDI attainment over the past 40 years, according to the report's analysis of health, education and income data. China, the second highest achiever in the world in terms of HDI improvement since 1970, is the only country on the "Top 10 Movers" list due to income rather than health or education achievements. Its per capita income increased a stunning 21-fold over the last four decades, also lifting hundreds of millions out of income poverty. Yet it was not among the region's top performers in improving school enrollment and life expectancy.[54]
Nepal, a South Asian country, emerges as one of the world's fastest movers since 1970 mainly due to health and education achievements. Its present life expectancy is 25 years longer than in the 1970s. More than four of every five children of school age in Nepal now attend primary school, compared to just one in five 40 years ago.[54]
Hong Kong ranked highest among the countries grouped on the HDI (number 7 in the world, which is in the "very high human development" category), followed by Singapore (9), Japan (19) and South Korea (22). Afghanistan (155) ranked lowest amongst Asian countries out of the 169 countries assessed.[54]

Languages
Main article: Languages of Asia
Asia is home to several language families and many language isolates. Most Asian countries have more than one language that is natively spoken. For instance, according to Ethnologue, more than 600 languages are spoken in Indonesia, more than 800 languages spoken in India, and more than 100 are spoken in the Philippines. China has many languages and dialects in different provinces.

Religions
See also: Eastern philosophy, Religion in Asia, and List of Asian mythologies
Many of the world's major religions have their origins in Asia, including the five most practiced in the world (excluding irreligion), which are Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Chinese folk religion (classified as Confucianism and Taoism), and Buddhism respectively. Asian mythology is complex and diverse. The story of the Great Flood for example, as presented to Jews in the Hebrew Bible in the narrative of Noah—and later to Christians in the Old Testament, and to Muslims in the Quran—is earliest found in Mesopotamian mythology, in the Enûma Eliš and Epic of Gilgamesh. Hindu mythology similarly tells about an avatar of Vishnu in the form of a fish who warned Manu of a terrible flood. Ancient Chinese mythology also tells of a Great Flood spanning generations, one that required the combined efforts of emperors and divinities to control.

Abrahamic

The Western Wall and the Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem

Pilgrims in the annual Hajj at the Kaabah in Mecca.
The Abrahamic religions including Judaism, Christianity, Islam and Bahá'í Faith originated in West Asia.

Judaism, the oldest of the Abrahamic faiths, is practiced primarily in Israel, the indigenous homeland and historical birthplace of the Hebrew nation: which today consists both of those Israelites who remained in Asia/North Africa and those who returned from diaspora in Europe, North America, and other regions;[55] though various diaspora communities persist worldwide. Jews are the predominant ethnic group in Israel (75.6%) numbering at about 6.1 million,[56] although the levels of adherence to Jewish religion vary. Outside of Israel there are small ancient Jewish communities in Turkey (17,400),[57] Azerbaijan (9,100),[58] Iran (8,756),[59] India (5,000) and Uzbekistan (4,000),[60] among many other places. In total, there are 14.4–17.5 million (2016, est.)[61] Jews alive in the world today, making them one of the smallest Asian minorities, at roughly 0.3 to 0.4 percent of the total population of the continent.

Christianity is a widespread religion in Asia with more than 286 million adherents according to Pew Research Center in 2010,[62] and nearly 364 million according to Britannica Book of the Year 2014.[63] Constituting around 12.6% of the total population of Asia. In the Philippines and East Timor, Roman Catholicism is the predominant religion; it was introduced by the Spaniards and the Portuguese, respectively. In Armenia, Georgia and Asian Russia, Eastern Orthodoxy is the predominant religion. In the Middle East, such as in the Levant, Syriac Christianity (Church of the East) and Oriental Orthodoxy are prevalent minority denominations, which are both Eastern Christian sects mainly adhered to Assyrian people or Syriac Christians. Saint Thomas Christians in India trace their origins to the evangelistic activity of Thomas the Apostle in the 1st century.[64]

Islam, which originated in the Hejaz located in modern-day Saudi Arabia, is the second largest and most widely-spread religion in Asia with at least 1 billion Muslims constituting around 23.8% of the total population of Asia.[65] With 12.7% of the world Muslim population, the country currently with the largest Muslim population in the world is Indonesia, followed by Pakistan (11.5%), India (10%), Bangladesh, Iran and Turkey. Mecca, Medina and Jerusalem are the three holiest cities for Islam in all the world. The Hajj and Umrah attract large numbers of Muslim devotees from all over the world to Mecca and Medina. Iran is the largest Shi'a country.

The Bahá'í Faith originated in Asia, in Iran (Persia), and spread from there to the Ottoman Empire, Central Asia, India, and Burma during the lifetime of Bahá'u'lláh. Since the middle of the 20th century, growth has particularly occurred in other Asian countries, because Bahá'í activities in many Muslim countries has been severely suppressed by authorities. Lotus Temple is a big Baha'i Temple in India.

Indian and East Asian religions

The Swaminarayan Akshardham Temple in Delhi, according to the Guinness World Records is the World's Largest Comprehensive Hindu Temple[66]
Almost all Asian religions have philosophical character and Asian philosophical traditions cover a large spectrum of philosophical thoughts and writings. Indian philosophy includes Hindu philosophy and Buddhist philosophy. They include elements of nonmaterial pursuits, whereas another school of thought from India, Cārvāka, preached the enjoyment of the material world. The religions of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism originated in India, South Asia. In East Asia, particularly in China and Japan, Confucianism, Taoism and Zen Buddhism took shape.

As of 2012, Hinduism has around 1.1 billion adherents. The faith represents around 25% of Asia's population and is the largest religion in Asia. However, it is mostly concentrated in South Asia. Over 80% of the populations of both India and Nepal adhere to Hinduism, alongside significant communities in Bangladesh, Pakistan, Bhutan, Sri Lanka and Bali, Indonesia. Many overseas Indians in countries such as Burma, Singapore and Malaysia also adhere to Hinduism.


Statue of Unity located in Gujarat, India is the World's tallest statue.
Buddhism has a great following in mainland Southeast Asia and East Asia. Buddhism is the religion of the majority of the populations of Cambodia (96%),[67] Thailand (95%),[68] Burma (80–89%),[69] Japan (36–96%),[70] Bhutan (75–84%),[71] Sri Lanka (70%),[72] Laos (60–67%)[73] and Mongolia (53–93%).[74] Large Buddhist populations also exist in Singapore (33–51%),[75] Taiwan (35–93%),[76][77][78][79] South Korea (23–50%),[80] Malaysia (19–21%),[81] Nepal (9–11%),[82] Vietnam (10–75%),[83] China (20–50%),[84] North Korea (2–14%),[85][86][87] and small communities in India and Bangladesh. In many Chinese communities, Mahayana Buddhism is easily syncretized with Taoism, thus exact religious statistics is difficult to obtain and may be understated or overstated. The Communist-governed countries of China, Vietnam and North Korea are officially atheist, thus the number of Buddhists and other religious adherents may be under-reported.

Jainism is found mainly in India and in oversea Indian communities such as the United States and Malaysia. Sikhism is found in Northern India and amongst overseas Indian communities in other parts of Asia, especially Southeast Asia. Confucianism is found predominantly in Mainland China, South Korea, Taiwan and in overseas Chinese populations. Taoism is found mainly in Mainland China, Taiwan, Malaysia and Singapore. Taoism is easily syncretized with Mahayana Buddhism for many Chinese, thus exact religious statistics is difficult to obtain and may be understated or overstated.


Japanese wedding at the Meiji Shrine

 

Hindu festival celebrated by Singapore's Tamil community

 

Orthodox cross procession in Novosibirsk

 

Catholic procession of the Black Nazarene in Manila

 

Muslim men praying in Turkey

Modern conflicts

US forces drop Napalm on suspected Viet Cong positions in 1965

Wounded civilians arrive at a hospital in Aleppo during the Syrian Civil War, October 2012
Some of the events pivotal in the Asia territory related to the relationship with the outside world in the post-Second World War were:

The Chinese Civil War
The Kashmir conflict
The Insurgency in Northeast India
The Korean War
The French-Indochina War
The Vietnam War
The Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation
The Sino-Vietnamese War
The Bangladesh Liberation War
The Yom Kippur War
The Iranian Revolution
The Soviet–Afghan War
The Iran–Iraq War
The Indonesian occupation of East Timor
The Cambodian Killing Fields
The Insurgency in Laos
The Lebanese Civil War
The Sri Lankan Civil War
The Dissolution of the Soviet Union
The Gulf War
The Nepalese Civil War
The Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts
The Nagorno-Karabakh War
The War in Afghanistan
The Iraq War
The 2006 Thai coup d'état
The Burmese Civil War
The Saffron Revolution
The Arab Spring
The Arab–Israeli conflict
The Syrian Civil War
The Sino-Indian War
The 2014 Thai coup d'état
The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant
The Turkish invasion of Syria
The Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen
Culture
[icon]	
This section needs expansion with: More information about general cultural topics other than Nobel prizes. You can help by adding to it. (June 2011)
Main article: Culture of Asia
Nobel prizes

Indian polymath Rabindranath Tagore was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1913, and became Asia's first Nobel laureate
The polymath Rabindranath Tagore, a Bengali poet, dramatist, and writer from Santiniketan, now in West Bengal, India, became in 1913 the first Asian Nobel laureate. He won his Nobel Prize in Literature for notable impact his prose works and poetic thought had on English, French, and other national literatures of Europe and the Americas. He is also the writer of the national anthems of Bangladesh and India.

Other Asian writers who won Nobel Prize for literature include Yasunari Kawabata (Japan, 1968), Kenzaburō Ōe (Japan, 1994), Gao Xingjian (China, 2000), Orhan Pamuk (Turkey, 2006), and Mo Yan (China, 2012). Some may consider the American writer, Pearl S. Buck, an honorary Asian Nobel laureate, having spent considerable time in China as the daughter of missionaries, and based many of her novels, namely The Good Earth (1931) and The Mother (1933), as well as the biographies of her parents of their time in China, The Exile and Fighting Angel, all of which earned her the Literature prize in 1938.

Also, Mother Teresa of India and Shirin Ebadi of Iran were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for their significant and pioneering efforts for democracy and human rights, especially for the rights of women and children. Ebadi is the first Iranian and the first Muslim woman to receive the prize. Another Nobel Peace Prize winner is Aung San Suu Kyi from Burma for her peaceful and non-violent struggle under a military dictatorship in Burma. She is a nonviolent pro-democracy activist and leader of the National League for Democracy in Burma (Myanmar) and a noted prisoner of conscience. She is a Buddhist and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991. Chinese dissident Liu Xiaobo was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for "his long and non-violent struggle for fundamental human rights in China" on 8 October 2010. He is the first Chinese citizen to be awarded a Nobel Prize of any kind while residing in China. In 2014, Kailash Satyarthi from India and Malala Yousafzai from Pakistan were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize "for their struggle against the suppression of children and young people and for the right of all children to education".

Sir C.V. Raman is the first Asian to get a Nobel prize in Sciences. He won the Nobel Prize in Physics "for his work on the scattering of light and for the discovery of the effect named after him".

Japan has won the most Nobel Prizes of any Asian nation with 24 followed by India which has won 13.

Amartya Sen, (born 3 November 1933) is an Indian economist who was awarded the 1998 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for his contributions to welfare economics and social choice theory, and for his interest in the problems of society's poorest members.

Other Asian Nobel Prize winners include Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, Abdus Salam, Malala Yousafzai, Robert Aumann, Menachem Begin, Aaron Ciechanover, Avram Hershko, Daniel Kahneman, Shimon Peres, Yitzhak Rabin, Ada Yonath, Yasser Arafat, José Ramos-Horta and Bishop Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo of Timor Leste, Kim Dae-jung, and 13 Japanese scientists. Most of the said awardees are from Japan and Israel except for Chandrasekhar and Raman (India), Abdus Salam and Malala yousafzai, (Pakistan), Arafat (Palestinian Territories), Kim (South Korea), and Horta and Belo (Timor Leste).

In 2006, Dr. Muhammad Yunus of Bangladesh was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for the establishment of Grameen Bank, a community development bank that lends money to poor people, especially women in Bangladesh. Dr. Yunus received his PhD in economics from Vanderbilt University, United States. He is internationally known for the concept of micro credit which allows poor and destitute people with little or no collateral to borrow money. The borrowers typically pay back money within the specified period and the incidence of default is very low.

The Dalai Lama has received approximately eighty-four awards over his spiritual and political career.[88] On 22 June 2006, he became one of only four people ever to be recognized with Honorary Citizenship by the Governor General of Canada. On 28 May 2005, he received the Christmas Humphreys Award from the Buddhist Society in the United Kingdom. Most notable was the Nobel Peace Prize, presented in Oslo, Norway on 10 December 1989.

Political geography
Main article: Politics of Asia
See also: List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia

From 1841 to 1997, Hong Kong was a British colony.
IranChinaSaudi
ArabiaJapanKazakhstanIndiaMongoliaIndonesiaMalaysiaPhilippinesVietnamSingaporeSouth KoreaNorth KoreaAfghanistanPakistanThailandLaosCambodiaEast TimorBruneiMyanmarBhutanBangladeshNepalTaiwanUzbekistanKyrgyzstanTajikistanTurkmenistanOmanYemenUAEQat.Bah.Kuw.IraqJordanIsraelSyriaTurkeyGeorgiaAzer.ArmeniaCyp.EgyptMaldivesSri LankaRussiaH.K.Macau
Flag	Symbol	Name	Population[2]
(2016)	Area
(km²)	Capital
Afghanistan	National emblem of Afghanistan.svg	Afghanistan	34,656,032	647,500	Kabul
Armenia	Armenia	Armenia	2,924,816	29,743	Yerevan
Azerbaijan	Azerbaijan	Azerbaijan[89]	9,725,376	86,600	Baku
Bahrain	Emblem of Bahrain.svg	Bahrain	1,425,171	760	Manama
Bangladesh	National emblem of Bangladesh.svg	Bangladesh	162,951,560	147,570	Dhaka
Bhutan	Emblem of Bhutan.svg	Bhutan	797,765	38,394	Thimphu
Brunei	Emblem of Brunei.svg	Brunei	423,196	5,765	Bandar Seri Begawan
Cambodia	Cambodia	Cambodia	15,762,370	181,035	Phnom Penh
China	National Emblem of the People's Republic of China (2).svg	China (PRC)	1,403,500,365	9,596,961	Beijing
East Timor	East Timor	East Timor	1,268,671	14,874	Dili
Egypt	Egypt	Egypt[89]	95,688,681	1,010,408	Cairo
Georgia (country)	Georgia (country)	Georgia[89]	3,925,405	69,700	Tbilisi
India	Emblem of India.svg	India	1,324,171,354	3,287,263	New Delhi
Indonesia	Indonesia	Indonesia[89]	261,115,456	1,904,569	Jakarta
Iran	Emblem of Iran.svg	Iran	80,277,428	1,648,195	Tehran
Iraq	Iraq	Iraq	37,202,572	438,317	Baghdad
Israel	Israel	Israel	8,191,828	20,770	Jerusalem (disputed)
Japan	Imperial Seal of Japan.svg	Japan	127,748,513	377,915	Tokyo
Jordan	Jordan	Jordan	9,455,802	89,342	Amman
Kazakhstan	Emblem of Kazakhstan.svg	Kazakhstan[89]	17,987,736	2,724,900	Nur-Sultan
Kuwait	Kuwait	Kuwait	4,052,584	17,818	Kuwait City
Kyrgyzstan	National emblem of Kyrgyzstan 2016.svg	Kyrgyzstan	5,955,734	199,951	Bishkek
Laos	Emblem of Laos.svg	Laos	6,758,353	236,800	Vientiane
Lebanon	Lebanon	Lebanon	6,006,668	10,400	Beirut
Malaysia	Malaysia	Malaysia	31,187,265	329,847	Kuala Lumpur
Maldives	Emblem of Maldives.svg	Maldives	427,756	298	Malé
Mongolia	State emblem of Mongolia.svg	Mongolia	3,027,398	1,564,116	Ulaanbaatar
Myanmar	Myanmar	Myanmar	52,885,223	676,578	Naypyidaw
Nepal	Emblem of Nepal.svg	Nepal	28,982,771	147,181	Kathmandu
North Korea	Emblem of North Korea.svg	North Korea	25,368,620	120,538	Pyongyang
Oman	National emblem of Oman.svg	Oman	4,424,762	309,500	Muscat
Pakistan	Pakistan	Pakistan	211,103,000	881,913	Islamabad
State of Palestine	Coat of arms of Palestine.svg	Palestine	4,790,705	6,220	Ramallah
(Jerusalem) (claimed)
Papua New Guinea	National Emblem of Papua New Guinea.svg	Papua New Guinea[89]	8,084,991	462,840	Port Moresby
Philippines	Philippines	Philippines	103,320,222	343,448	Manila
Qatar	Emblem of Qatar.svg	Qatar	2,569,804	11,586	Doha
Russia	Russia	Russia[89]	143,964,513	17,098,242	Moscow
Saudi Arabia	Emblem of Saudi Arabia.svg	Saudi Arabia	32,275,687	2,149,690	Riyadh
Singapore	Singapore	Singapore	5,622,455	697	Singapore
South Korea	Emblem of South Korea.svg	South Korea	50,791,919	100,210	Seoul
Sri Lanka	Emblem of Sri Lanka.svg	Sri Lanka	20,798,492	65,610	Colombo
Syria	Syria	Syria	18,430,453	185,180	Damascus
Taiwan	National Emblem of the Republic of China.svg	Taiwan (ROC)	23,556,706	36,193	Taipei
Tajikistan	Emblem of Tajikistan.svg	Tajikistan	8,734,951	143,100	Dushanbe
Thailand	Emblem of Thailand.svg	Thailand	68,863,514	513,120	Bangkok
Turkey	Emblem of Turkey.svg	Turkey[90]	79,512,426	783,562	Ankara
Turkmenistan	Emblem of Turkmenistan.svg	Turkmenistan	5,662,544	488,100	Ashgabat
United Arab Emirates	Emblem of the United Arab Emirates.svg	United Arab Emirates	9,269,612	83,600	Abu Dhabi
Uzbekistan	Emblem of Uzbekistan.svg	Uzbekistan	31,446,795	447,400	Tashkent
Vietnam	Emblem of Vietnam.svg	Vietnam	94,569,072	331,212	Hanoi
Yemen	Emblem of Yemen.svg	Yemen	27,584,213	527,968	Sana'a
Within the above-mentioned states are several partially recognized countries with limited to no international recognition. None of them are members of the UN:

Flag	Symbol	Name	Population
Area
(km²)	Capital
Abkhazia	Coat of arms of Abkhazia.svg	Abkhazia	242,862	8,660	Sukhumi
Republic of Artsakh	Coat of arms of Artsakh.svg	Artsakh	146,573	11,458	Stepanakert
South Ossetia	South Ossetia	South Ossetia	51,547	3,900	Tskhinvali
See also
Main articles: Outline of Asia and Index of Asia-related articles
References to articles:

Subregions of Asia
Special topics:

Asian Century
Asian cuisine
Asian furniture
Asian Games
Asian Para Games
Asian Monetary Unit
Asian people
Eastern world
Eurasia
Far East
East Asia
Southeast Asia
South Asia
Central Asia
Fauna of Asia
Flags of Asia
Middle East
Eastern Mediterranean
Levant
Near East
Pan-Asianism
Lists:

List of cities in Asia
List of metropolitan areas in Asia by population
List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia
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 transcontinental country.
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Further reading
Higham, Charles. Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations. Facts on File library of world history. New York: Facts On File, 2004.
Kamal, Niraj. "Arise Asia: Respond to White Peril". New Delhi: Wordsmith, 2002, ISBN 978-81-87412-08-3
Kapadia, Feroz, and Mandira Mukherjee. Encyclopaedia of Asian Culture and Society. New Delhi: Anmol Publications, 1999.
Levinson, David, and Karen Christensen. Encyclopedia of Modern Asia. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2002.
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"Display Maps". The Soil Maps of Asia. European Digital Archive of Soil Maps – EuDASM. Archived from the original on 12 August 2011. Retrieved 26 July 2011.
"Asia Maps". Perry–Castañeda Library Map Collection. University of Texas Libraries. Archived from the original on 18 July 2011. Retrieved 20 July 2011.
"Asia". Norman B. Leventhal Map Center at the Boston Public Library. Archived from the original on 29 September 2011. Retrieved 26 July 2011.
Bowring, Philip (12 February 1987). "What is Asia?". Eastern Economic Review. 135 (7).
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Asia
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For other uses, see Asia (disambiguation).
Asia
Asia (orthographic projection).svg
Area	44,579,000 km2 (17,212,000 sq mi)  (1st)[1]
Population	4,462,676,731 (2016; 1st)[2]
Population density	100/km2 (260/sq mi)
GDP (nominal)	$31.58 trillion (2019; 1st)[3]
GDP (PPP)	$65.44 trillion (2019; 1st)[3]
GDP per capita	$7,350 (2019; 5th)[3]
Demonym	Asian
Countries	49 UN members,
1 UN observer, 5 other states
Dependencies	
List[show]
Non-UN states	
List[show]
Languages	List of languages
Time zones	UTC+2 to UTC+12
Internet TLD	.asia
Largest cities	
Metropolitan areas of Asia
List of cities in Asia
Tokyo Jakarta Delhi Karachi Seoul Shanghai Manila Mumbai Beijing Guangzhou Osaka Dhaka Bangkok Chennai Chittagong Tehran Dubai Ho Chi Minh City Singapore
UN M49 code	142 – Asia
001 – World
Excludes North Asia
Asia (/ˈeɪʒə, ˈeɪʃə/ (About this soundlisten)) is Earth's largest and most populous continent, located primarily in the Eastern and Northern Hemispheres. It shares the continental landmass of Eurasia with the continent of Europe and the continental landmass of Afro-Eurasia with both Europe and Africa. Asia covers an area of 44,579,000 square kilometres (17,212,000 sq mi), about 30% of Earth's total land area and 8.7% of the Earth's total surface area. The continent, which has long been home to the majority of the human population,[4] was the site of many of the first civilizations. Asia is notable for not only its overall large size and population, but also dense and large settlements, as well as vast barely populated regions. Its 4.5 billion people (as of June 2019) constitute roughly 60% of the world's population.[5]

In general terms, Asia is bounded on the east by the Pacific Ocean, on the south by the Indian Ocean, and on the north by the Arctic Ocean. The border of Asia with Europe is a historical and cultural construct, as there is no clear physical and geographical separation between them. It is somewhat arbitrary and has moved since its first conception in classical antiquity. The division of Eurasia into two continents reflects East–West cultural, linguistic, and ethnic differences, some of which vary on a spectrum rather than with a sharp dividing line. The most commonly accepted boundaries place Asia to the east of the Suez Canal separating it from Africa; and to the east of the Turkish Straits, the Ural Mountains and Ural River, and to the south of the Caucasus Mountains and the Caspian and Black Seas, separating it from Europe.[6]

China and the Indian subcontinent alternated in being the largest economies in the world from 1 to 1800 CE. China was a major economic power and attracted many to the east,[7][8][9] and for many the legendary wealth and prosperity of the ancient culture of India personified Asia,[10] attracting European commerce, exploration and colonialism. The accidental discovery of a trans-Atlantic route from Europe to America by Columbus while in search for a route to India demonstrates this deep fascination. The Silk Road became the main east–west trading route in the Asian hinterlands while the Straits of Malacca stood as a major sea route. Asia has exhibited economic dynamism (particularly East Asia) as well as robust population growth during the 20th century, but overall population growth has since fallen.[11] Asia was the birthplace of most of the world's mainstream religions including Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Jainism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, Christianity, Islam, Sikhism, as well as many other religions.

Given its size and diversity, the concept of Asia—a name dating back to classical antiquity—may actually have more to do with human geography than physical geography.[citation needed] Asia varies greatly across and within its regions with regard to ethnic groups, cultures, environments, economics, historical ties and government systems. It also has a mix of many different climates ranging from the equatorial south via the hot desert in the Middle East, temperate areas in the east and the continental centre to vast subarctic and polar areas in Siberia.


Contents
1	Definition and boundaries
1.1	Asia–Africa boundary
1.2	Asia–Europe boundary
1.3	Asia–Oceania boundary
1.4	Ongoing definition
2	Etymology
2.1	Bronze Age
2.2	Classical antiquity
3	History
4	Geography and climate
4.1	Main regions
4.2	Climate change
5	Economy
6	Tourism
7	Demographics
7.1	Languages
7.2	Religions
7.2.1	Abrahamic
7.2.2	Indian and East Asian religions
8	Modern conflicts
9	Culture
9.1	Nobel prizes
10	Political geography
11	See also
12	References
13	Bibliography
14	Further reading
15	External links
Definition and boundaries
Further information on Asian borders: Geography of Asia § Boundary, Boundaries between continents, List of transcontinental countries § Asia and Europe, and Copenhagen criteria
Asia–Africa boundary
The boundary between Asia and Africa is the Red Sea, the Gulf of Suez, and the Suez Canal.[citation needed] This makes Egypt a transcontinental country, with the Sinai peninsula in Asia and the remainder of the country in Africa.

Asia–Europe boundary

Statue representing Asia at Palazzo Ferreria, in Valletta, Malta
The border between Asia and Europe was historically defined by European academics.[12] The Don River became unsatisfactory to northern Europeans when Peter the Great, king of the Tsardom of Russia, defeating rival claims of Sweden and the Ottoman Empire to the eastern lands, and armed resistance by the tribes of Siberia, synthesized a new Russian Empire extending to the Ural Mountains and beyond, founded in 1721. The major geographical theorist of the empire was actually a former Swedish prisoner-of-war, taken at the Battle of Poltava in 1709 and assigned to Tobolsk, where he associated with Peter's Siberian official, Vasily Tatishchev, and was allowed freedom to conduct geographical and anthropological studies in preparation for a future book.[citation needed]

In Sweden, five years after Peter's death, in 1730 Philip Johan von Strahlenberg published a new atlas proposing the Ural Mountains as the border of Asia. Tatishchev announced that he had proposed the idea to von Strahlenberg. The latter had suggested the Emba River as the lower boundary. Over the next century various proposals were made until the Ural River prevailed in the mid-19th century. The border had been moved perforce from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea into which the Ural River projects.[13] The border between the Black Sea and the Caspian is usually placed along the crest of the Caucasus Mountains, although it is sometimes placed further north.[12]

Asia–Oceania boundary
The border between Asia and the region of Oceania is usually placed somewhere in the Malay Archipelago. The Maluku Islands in Indonesia are often considered to lie on the border of southeast Asia, with New Guinea, to the east of the islands, being wholly part of Oceania. The terms Southeast Asia and Oceania, devised in the 19th century, have had several vastly different geographic meanings since their inception. The chief factor in determining which islands of the Malay Archipelago are Asian has been the location of the colonial possessions of the various empires there (not all European). Lewis and Wigen assert, "The narrowing of 'Southeast Asia' to its present boundaries was thus a gradual process."[14]

Ongoing definition

Afro-Eurasia shown in green
Geographical Asia is a cultural artifact of European conceptions of the world, beginning with the Ancient Greeks, being imposed onto other cultures, an imprecise concept causing endemic contention about what it means. Asia does not exactly correspond to the cultural borders of its various types of constituents.[15]

From the time of Herodotus a minority of geographers have rejected the three-continent system (Europe, Africa, Asia) on the grounds that there is no substantial physical separation between them.[16] For example, Sir Barry Cunliffe, the emeritus professor of European archeology at Oxford, argues that Europe has been geographically and culturally merely "the western excrescence of the continent of Asia".[17]

Geographically, Asia is the major eastern constituent of the continent of Eurasia with Europe being a northwestern peninsula of the landmass. Asia, Europe and Africa make up a single continuous landmass—Afro-Eurasia (except for the Suez Canal)—and share a common continental shelf. Almost all of Europe and the better part of Asia sit atop the Eurasian Plate, adjoined on the south by the Arabian and Indian Plate and with the easternmost part of Siberia (east of the Chersky Range) on the North American Plate.

Etymology

Ptolemy's Asia
The idea of a place called "Asia" was originally a concept of Greek civilization,[18] though this might not correspond to the entire continent currently known by that name. The English word comes from Latin literature, where it has the same form, "Asia". Whether "Asia" in other languages comes from Latin of the Roman Empire is much less certain, and the ultimate source of the Latin word is uncertain, though several theories have been published. One of the first classical writers to use Asia as a name of the whole continent was Pliny.[19] This metonymical change in meaning is common and can be observed in some other geographical names, such as Scandinavia (from Scania).

Bronze Age
Before Greek poetry, the Aegean Sea area was in a Greek Dark Age, at the beginning of which syllabic writing was lost and alphabetic writing had not begun. Prior to then in the Bronze Age the records of the Assyrian Empire, the Hittite Empire and the various Mycenaean states of Greece mention a region undoubtedly Asia, certainly in Anatolia, including if not identical to Lydia. These records are administrative and do not include poetry.

The Mycenaean states were destroyed about 1200 BCE by unknown agents although one school of thought assigns the Dorian invasion to this time. The burning of the palaces baked clay diurnal administrative records written in a Greek syllabic script called Linear B, deciphered by a number of interested parties, most notably by a young World War II cryptographer, Michael Ventris, subsequently assisted by the scholar, John Chadwick. A major cache discovered by Carl Blegen at the site of ancient Pylos included hundreds of male and female names formed by different methods.

Some of these are of women held in servitude (as study of the society implied by the content reveals). They were used in trades, such as cloth-making, and usually came with children. The epithet lawiaiai, "captives", associated with some of them identifies their origin. Some are ethnic names. One in particular, aswiai, identifies "women of Asia".[20] Perhaps they were captured in Asia, but some others, Milatiai, appear to have been of Miletus, a Greek colony, which would not have been raided for slaves by Greeks. Chadwick suggests that the names record the locations where these foreign women were purchased.[21] The name is also in the singular, Aswia, which refers both to the name of a country and to a female of it. There is a masculine form, aswios. This Aswia appears to have been a remnant of a region known to the Hittites as Assuwa, centered on Lydia, or "Roman Asia". This name, Assuwa, has been suggested as the origin for the name of the continent "Asia".[22] The Assuwa league was a confederation of states in western Anatolia, defeated by the Hittites under Tudhaliya I around 1400 BCE.

Alternatively, the etymology of the term may be from the Akkadian word (w)aṣû(m), which means 'to go outside' or 'to ascend', referring to the direction of the sun at sunrise in the Middle East and also likely connected with the Phoenician word asa meaning east. This may be contrasted to a similar etymology proposed for Europe, as being from Akkadian erēbu(m) 'to enter' or 'set' (of the sun).

T.R. Reid supports this alternative etymology, noting that the ancient Greek name must have derived from asu, meaning 'east' in Assyrian (ereb for Europe meaning 'west').[18] The ideas of Occidental (form Latin Occidens 'setting') and Oriental (from Latin Oriens for 'rising') are also European invention, synonymous with Western and Eastern.[18] Reid further emphasizes that it explains the Western point of view of placing all the peoples and cultures of Asia into a single classification, almost as if there were a need for setting the distinction between Western and Eastern civilizations on the Eurasian continent.[18] Kazuo Ogura and Tenshin Okakura are two outspoken Japanese figures on the subject.[18]

Classical antiquity

The province of Asia highlighted (in red) within the Roman Empire.
Latin Asia and Greek Ἀσία appear to be the same word. Roman authors translated Ἀσία as Asia. The Romans named a province Asia, located in western Anatolia (in modern-day Turkey). There was an Asia Minor and an Asia Major located in modern-day Iraq. As the earliest evidence of the name is Greek, it is likely circumstantially that Asia came from Ἀσία, but ancient transitions, due to the lack of literary contexts, are difficult to catch in the act. The most likely vehicles were the ancient geographers and historians, such as Herodotus, who were all Greek. Ancient Greek certainly evidences early and rich uses of the name.[23]

The first continental use of Asia is attributed to Herodotus (about 440 BCE), not because he innovated it, but because his Histories are the earliest surviving prose to describe it in any detail. He defines it carefully,[24] mentioning the previous geographers whom he had read, but whose works are now missing. By it he means Anatolia and the Persian Empire, in contrast to Greece and Egypt.

Herodotus comments that he is puzzled as to why three women's names were "given to a tract which is in reality one" (Europa, Asia, and Libya, referring to Africa), stating that most Greeks assumed that Asia was named after the wife of Prometheus (i.e. Hesione), but that the Lydians say it was named after Asies, son of Cotys, who passed the name on to a tribe at Sardis.[25] In Greek mythology, "Asia" (Ἀσία) or "Asie" (Ἀσίη) was the name of a "Nymph or Titan goddess of Lydia".[26]

In ancient Greek religion, places were under the care of female divinities, parallel to guardian angels. The poets detailed their doings and generations in allegoric language salted with entertaining stories, which subsequently playwrights transformed into classical Greek drama and became "Greek mythology". For example, Hesiod mentions the daughters of Tethys and Ocean, among whom are a "holy company", "who with the Lord Apollo and the Rivers have youths in their keeping".[27] Many of these are geographic: Doris, Rhodea, Europa, Asia. Hesiod explains:[28]

For there are three-thousand neat-ankled daughters of Ocean who are dispersed far and wide, and in every place alike serve the earth and the deep waters.

The Iliad (attributed by the ancient Greeks to Homer) mentions two Phrygians (the tribe that replaced the Luvians in Lydia) in the Trojan War named Asios (an adjective meaning "Asian");[29] and also a marsh or lowland containing a marsh in Lydia as ασιος.[30]

History
Main article: History of Asia

The Silk Road connected civilizations across Asia[31]

The Mongol Empire at its greatest extent. The gray area is the later Timurid Empire.
The history of Asia can be seen as the distinct histories of several peripheral coastal regions: East Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia and the Middle East, linked by the interior mass of the Central Asian steppes.

The coastal periphery was home to some of the world's earliest known civilizations, each of them developing around fertile river valleys. The civilizations in Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley and the Yellow River shared many similarities. These civilizations may well have exchanged technologies and ideas such as mathematics and the wheel. Other innovations, such as writing, seem to have been developed individually in each area. Cities, states and empires developed in these lowlands.

The central steppe region had long been inhabited by horse-mounted nomads who could reach all areas of Asia from the steppes. The earliest postulated expansion out of the steppe is that of the Indo-Europeans, who spread their languages into the Middle East, South Asia, and the borders of China, where the Tocharians resided. The northernmost part of Asia, including much of Siberia, was largely inaccessible to the steppe nomads, owing to the dense forests, climate and tundra. These areas remained very sparsely populated.

The center and the peripheries were mostly kept separated by mountains and deserts. The Caucasus and Himalaya mountains and the Karakum and Gobi deserts formed barriers that the steppe horsemen could cross only with difficulty. While the urban city dwellers were more advanced technologically and socially, in many cases they could do little in a military aspect to defend against the mounted hordes of the steppe. However, the lowlands did not have enough open grasslands to support a large horsebound force; for this and other reasons, the nomads who conquered states in China, India, and the Middle East often found themselves adapting to the local, more affluent societies.

The Islamic Caliphate's defeats of the Byzantine and Persian empires led to West Asia and southern parts of Central Asia and western parts of South Asia under its control during its conquests of the 7th century. The Mongol Empire conquered a large part of Asia in the 13th century, an area extending from China to Europe. Before the Mongol invasion, Song dynasty reportedly had approximately 120 million citizens; the 1300 census which followed the invasion reported roughly 60 million people.[32]

The Black Death, one of the most devastating pandemics in human history, is thought to have originated in the arid plains of central Asia, where it then travelled along the Silk Road.[33]

The Russian Empire began to expand into Asia from the 17th century, and would eventually take control of all of Siberia and most of Central Asia by the end of the 19th century. The Ottoman Empire controlled Anatolia, most of the Middle East, North Africa and the Balkans from the mid 16th century onwards. In the 17th century, the Manchu conquered China and established the Qing dynasty. The Islamic Mughal Empire and the Hindu Maratha Empire controlled much of India in the 16th and 18th centuries respectively.[34] The Empire of Japan controlled most of East Asia and much of Southeast Asia, New Guinea and the Pacific islands until the end of World War II.


Map of western, southern, and central Asia in 1885[35]

 

The map of Asia in 1796, which also included the continent of Australia (then known as New Holland).

 

1890 map of Asia

Geography and climate
Main articles: Geography of Asia and Climate of Asia
See also: Category:Biota of Asia

The Himalayan range is home to some of the planet's highest peaks.
Asia is the largest continent on Earth. It covers 9% of the Earth's total surface area (or 30% of its land area), and has the longest coastline, at 62,800 kilometres (39,022 mi). Asia is generally defined as comprising the eastern four-fifths of Eurasia. It is located to the east of the Suez Canal and the Ural Mountains, and south of the Caucasus Mountains (or the Kuma–Manych Depression) and the Caspian and Black Seas.[6][36] It is bounded on the east by the Pacific Ocean, on the south by the Indian Ocean and on the north by the Arctic Ocean. Asia is subdivided into 48 countries, three of them (Russia, Kazakhstan and Turkey) having part of their land in Europe.

Asia has extremely diverse climates and geographic features. Climates range from arctic and subarctic in Siberia to tropical in southern India and Southeast Asia. It is moist across southeast sections, and dry across much of the interior. Some of the largest daily temperature ranges on Earth occur in western sections of Asia. The monsoon circulation dominates across southern and eastern sections, due to the presence of the Himalayas forcing the formation of a thermal low which draws in moisture during the summer. Southwestern sections of the continent are hot. Siberia is one of the coldest places in the Northern Hemisphere, and can act as a source of arctic air masses for North America. The most active place on Earth for tropical cyclone activity lies northeast of the Philippines and south of Japan. The Gobi Desert is in Mongolia and the Arabian Desert stretches across much of the Middle East. The Yangtze River in China is the longest river in the continent. The Himalayas between Nepal and China is the tallest mountain range in the world. Tropical rainforests stretch across much of southern Asia and coniferous and deciduous forests lie farther north.


Kerala backwaters

 

Mongolian steppe

 

South China Karst

 

Altai Mountains

 

Hunza Valley

Main regions
Central Asia (The 'stans)
East Asia (Far East)
North Asia (Siberia)
South Asia (Indian subcontinent)
Southeast Asia (East Indies and Indochina)
Western Asia (The Middle East or Near East)
Climate change
A survey carried out in 2010 by global risk analysis farm Maplecroft identified 16 countries that are extremely vulnerable to climate change. Each nation's vulnerability was calculated using 42 socio, economic and environmental indicators, which identified the likely climate change impacts during the next 30 years. The Asian countries of Bangladesh, India, Vietnam, Thailand, Pakistan and Sri Lanka were among the 16 countries facing extreme risk from climate change. Some shifts are already occurring. For example, in tropical parts of India with a semi-arid climate, the temperature increased by 0.4 °C between 1901 and 2003. A 2013 study by the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) aimed to find science-based, pro-poor approaches and techniques that would enable Asia's agricultural systems to cope with climate change, while benefitting poor and vulnerable farmers. The study's recommendations ranged from improving the use of climate information in local planning and strengthening weather-based agro-advisory services, to stimulating diversification of rural household incomes and providing incentives to farmers to adopt natural resource conservation measures to enhance forest cover, replenish groundwater and use renewable energy.[37]

Economy
Main articles: Economy of Asia, List of Asian countries by GDP, List of countries in Asia-Pacific by GDP (nominal), and List of Asian and Pacific countries by GDP (PPP)

Singapore has one of the busiest ports in the world and is the world's fourth largest foreign exchange trading center.
Rank	Country	GDP (PPP, Peak Year)
millions of USD	Peak Year
1	 China	27,331,166	2019
2	 India	11,468,022	2019
3	 Japan	5,749,550	2019
4	 Russia	4,357,759	2019
5	 Indonesia	3,743,159	2019
6	 Turkey	2,292,511	2018
7	 South Korea	2,229,779	2019
8	 Saudi Arabia	1,924,253	2019
9	 Iran	1,639,561	2017
10	 Thailand	1,390,484	2019
Rank	Country	GDP (nominal, Peak Year)
millions of USD	Peak Year
1	 China	14,216,503	2019
2	 Japan	6,203,212	2012
3	 India	2,971,996	2019
4	 Russia	2,289,244	2013
5	 South Korea	1,656,674	2019
6	 Indonesia	1,100,911	2019
7	 Turkey	950,328	2013
8	 Saudi Arabia	782,483	2018
9	 Taiwan	601,431	2019
10	 Iran	577,214	2011
Asia has the largest continental economy by both GDP Nominal and PPP in the world, and is the fastest growing economic region.[38] As of 2018, the largest economies in Asia are China, Japan, India, Russia, South Korea, Indonesia and Turkey based on GDP in both nominal and PPP.[39] Based on Global Office Locations 2011, Asia dominated the office locations with 4 of the top 5 being in Asia: Hong Kong, Singapore, Tokyo and Seoul. Around 68 percent of international firms have office in Hong Kong.[40]

In the late 1990s and early 2000s, the economies of China[41] and India have been growing rapidly, both with an average annual growth rate of more than 8%. Other recent very-high-growth nations in Asia include Israel, Malaysia, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Vietnam, Mongolia, Uzbekistan and the Philippines, and mineral-rich nations such as Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Iran, Brunei, the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain and Oman.

According to economic historian Angus Maddison in his book The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective, India had the world's largest economy during 0 BCE and 1000 BCE.[42][43] China was the largest and most advanced economy on earth for much of recorded history,[44][45][46] until the British Empire (excluding India) overtook it in the mid-19th century. For several decades in the late twentieth century Japan was the largest economy in Asia and second-largest of any single nation in the world, after surpassing the Soviet Union (measured in net material product) in 1986 and Germany in 1968. (NB: A number of supernational economies are larger, such as the European Union (EU), the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) or APEC). This ended in 2010 when China overtook Japan to become the world's second largest economy.

In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Japan's GDP was almost as large (current exchange rate method) as that of the rest of Asia combined.[47] In 1995, Japan's economy nearly equaled that of the US as the largest economy in the world for a day, after the Japanese currency reached a record high of 79 yen/US$. Economic growth in Asia since World War II to the 1990s had been concentrated in Japan as well as the four regions of South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Singapore located in the Pacific Rim, known as the Asian tigers, which have now all received developed country status, having the highest GDP per capita in Asia.[48]


Mumbai is one of the most populous cities on the continent. The city is an infrastructure and tourism hub, and plays a crucial role in the Economy of India.
It is forecasted that India will overtake Japan in terms of nominal GDP by 2020.[49] By 2027, according to Goldman Sachs, China will have the largest economy in the world. Several trade blocs exist, with the most developed being the Association of Southeast Asian Nations.

Asia is the largest continent in the world by a considerable margin, and it is rich in natural resources, such as petroleum, forests, fish, water, rice, copper and silver. Manufacturing in Asia has traditionally been strongest in East and Southeast Asia, particularly in China, Taiwan, South Korea, Japan, India, the Philippines, and Singapore. Japan and South Korea continue to dominate in the area of multinational corporations, but increasingly the PRC and India are making significant inroads. Many companies from Europe, North America, South Korea and Japan have operations in Asia's developing countries to take advantage of its abundant supply of cheap labour and relatively developed infrastructure.

According to Citigroup 9 of 11 Global Growth Generators countries came from Asia driven by population and income growth. They are Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Iraq, Mongolia, Philippines, Sri Lanka and Vietnam.[50] Asia has three main financial centers: Hong Kong, Tokyo and Singapore. Call centers and business process outsourcing (BPOs) are becoming major employers in India and the Philippines due to the availability of a large pool of highly skilled, English-speaking workers. The increased use of outsourcing has assisted the rise of India and the China as financial centers. Due to its large and extremely competitive information technology industry, India has become a major hub for outsourcing.

In 2010, Asia had 3.3 million millionaires (people with net worth over US$1 million excluding their homes), slightly below North America with 3.4 million millionaires. Last year Asia had toppled Europe.[51] Citigroup in The Wealth Report 2012 stated that Asian centa-millionaire overtook North America's wealth for the first time as the world's "economic center of gravity" continued moving east. At the end of 2011, there were 18,000 Asian people mainly in Southeast Asia, China and Japan who have at least $100 million in disposable assets, while North America with 17,000 people and Western Europe with 14,000 people.[52]

Tourism
A Thai temple complex with several ornate buildings and a stupa, and a lot of visitors
Wat Phra Kaeo in the Grand Palace is among Bangkok's major tourist attractions.
With growing Regional Tourism with domination of Chinese visitors, MasterCard has released Global Destination Cities Index 2013 with 10 of 20 are dominated by Asia and Pacific Region Cities and also for the first time a city of a country from Asia (Bangkok) set in the top-ranked with 15.98 international visitors.[53]

Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Asia
Historical populations
Year	Pop.	±%
1500	243,000,000	—    
1700	436,000,000	+79.4%
1900	947,000,000	+117.2%
1950	1,402,000,000	+48.0%
1999	3,634,000,000	+159.2%
2016	4,462,676,731	+22.8%
Source: "UN report 2004 data" (PDF).
The figure for 2016 is provided by the 2017 revision of the World Population Prospects[2].

Graph showing population by continent as a percentage of world population (1750–2005)
East Asia had by far the strongest overall Human Development Index (HDI) improvement of any region in the world, nearly doubling average HDI attainment over the past 40 years, according to the report's analysis of health, education and income data. China, the second highest achiever in the world in terms of HDI improvement since 1970, is the only country on the "Top 10 Movers" list due to income rather than health or education achievements. Its per capita income increased a stunning 21-fold over the last four decades, also lifting hundreds of millions out of income poverty. Yet it was not among the region's top performers in improving school enrollment and life expectancy.[54]
Nepal, a South Asian country, emerges as one of the world's fastest movers since 1970 mainly due to health and education achievements. Its present life expectancy is 25 years longer than in the 1970s. More than four of every five children of school age in Nepal now attend primary school, compared to just one in five 40 years ago.[54]
Hong Kong ranked highest among the countries grouped on the HDI (number 7 in the world, which is in the "very high human development" category), followed by Singapore (9), Japan (19) and South Korea (22). Afghanistan (155) ranked lowest amongst Asian countries out of the 169 countries assessed.[54]

Languages
Main article: Languages of Asia
Asia is home to several language families and many language isolates. Most Asian countries have more than one language that is natively spoken. For instance, according to Ethnologue, more than 600 languages are spoken in Indonesia, more than 800 languages spoken in India, and more than 100 are spoken in the Philippines. China has many languages and dialects in different provinces.

Religions
See also: Eastern philosophy, Religion in Asia, and List of Asian mythologies
Many of the world's major religions have their origins in Asia, including the five most practiced in the world (excluding irreligion), which are Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Chinese folk religion (classified as Confucianism and Taoism), and Buddhism respectively. Asian mythology is complex and diverse. The story of the Great Flood for example, as presented to Jews in the Hebrew Bible in the narrative of Noah—and later to Christians in the Old Testament, and to Muslims in the Quran—is earliest found in Mesopotamian mythology, in the Enûma Eliš and Epic of Gilgamesh. Hindu mythology similarly tells about an avatar of Vishnu in the form of a fish who warned Manu of a terrible flood. Ancient Chinese mythology also tells of a Great Flood spanning generations, one that required the combined efforts of emperors and divinities to control.

Abrahamic

The Western Wall and the Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem

Pilgrims in the annual Hajj at the Kaabah in Mecca.
The Abrahamic religions including Judaism, Christianity, Islam and Bahá'í Faith originated in West Asia.

Judaism, the oldest of the Abrahamic faiths, is practiced primarily in Israel, the indigenous homeland and historical birthplace of the Hebrew nation: which today consists both of those Israelites who remained in Asia/North Africa and those who returned from diaspora in Europe, North America, and other regions;[55] though various diaspora communities persist worldwide. Jews are the predominant ethnic group in Israel (75.6%) numbering at about 6.1 million,[56] although the levels of adherence to Jewish religion vary. Outside of Israel there are small ancient Jewish communities in Turkey (17,400),[57] Azerbaijan (9,100),[58] Iran (8,756),[59] India (5,000) and Uzbekistan (4,000),[60] among many other places. In total, there are 14.4–17.5 million (2016, est.)[61] Jews alive in the world today, making them one of the smallest Asian minorities, at roughly 0.3 to 0.4 percent of the total population of the continent.

Christianity is a widespread religion in Asia with more than 286 million adherents according to Pew Research Center in 2010,[62] and nearly 364 million according to Britannica Book of the Year 2014.[63] Constituting around 12.6% of the total population of Asia. In the Philippines and East Timor, Roman Catholicism is the predominant religion; it was introduced by the Spaniards and the Portuguese, respectively. In Armenia, Georgia and Asian Russia, Eastern Orthodoxy is the predominant religion. In the Middle East, such as in the Levant, Syriac Christianity (Church of the East) and Oriental Orthodoxy are prevalent minority denominations, which are both Eastern Christian sects mainly adhered to Assyrian people or Syriac Christians. Saint Thomas Christians in India trace their origins to the evangelistic activity of Thomas the Apostle in the 1st century.[64]

Islam, which originated in the Hejaz located in modern-day Saudi Arabia, is the second largest and most widely-spread religion in Asia with at least 1 billion Muslims constituting around 23.8% of the total population of Asia.[65] With 12.7% of the world Muslim population, the country currently with the largest Muslim population in the world is Indonesia, followed by Pakistan (11.5%), India (10%), Bangladesh, Iran and Turkey. Mecca, Medina and Jerusalem are the three holiest cities for Islam in all the world. The Hajj and Umrah attract large numbers of Muslim devotees from all over the world to Mecca and Medina. Iran is the largest Shi'a country.

The Bahá'í Faith originated in Asia, in Iran (Persia), and spread from there to the Ottoman Empire, Central Asia, India, and Burma during the lifetime of Bahá'u'lláh. Since the middle of the 20th century, growth has particularly occurred in other Asian countries, because Bahá'í activities in many Muslim countries has been severely suppressed by authorities. Lotus Temple is a big Baha'i Temple in India.

Indian and East Asian religions

The Swaminarayan Akshardham Temple in Delhi, according to the Guinness World Records is the World's Largest Comprehensive Hindu Temple[66]
Almost all Asian religions have philosophical character and Asian philosophical traditions cover a large spectrum of philosophical thoughts and writings. Indian philosophy includes Hindu philosophy and Buddhist philosophy. They include elements of nonmaterial pursuits, whereas another school of thought from India, Cārvāka, preached the enjoyment of the material world. The religions of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism originated in India, South Asia. In East Asia, particularly in China and Japan, Confucianism, Taoism and Zen Buddhism took shape.

As of 2012, Hinduism has around 1.1 billion adherents. The faith represents around 25% of Asia's population and is the largest religion in Asia. However, it is mostly concentrated in South Asia. Over 80% of the populations of both India and Nepal adhere to Hinduism, alongside significant communities in Bangladesh, Pakistan, Bhutan, Sri Lanka and Bali, Indonesia. Many overseas Indians in countries such as Burma, Singapore and Malaysia also adhere to Hinduism.


Statue of Unity located in Gujarat, India is the World's tallest statue.
Buddhism has a great following in mainland Southeast Asia and East Asia. Buddhism is the religion of the majority of the populations of Cambodia (96%),[67] Thailand (95%),[68] Burma (80–89%),[69] Japan (36–96%),[70] Bhutan (75–84%),[71] Sri Lanka (70%),[72] Laos (60–67%)[73] and Mongolia (53–93%).[74] Large Buddhist populations also exist in Singapore (33–51%),[75] Taiwan (35–93%),[76][77][78][79] South Korea (23–50%),[80] Malaysia (19–21%),[81] Nepal (9–11%),[82] Vietnam (10–75%),[83] China (20–50%),[84] North Korea (2–14%),[85][86][87] and small communities in India and Bangladesh. In many Chinese communities, Mahayana Buddhism is easily syncretized with Taoism, thus exact religious statistics is difficult to obtain and may be understated or overstated. The Communist-governed countries of China, Vietnam and North Korea are officially atheist, thus the number of Buddhists and other religious adherents may be under-reported.

Jainism is found mainly in India and in oversea Indian communities such as the United States and Malaysia. Sikhism is found in Northern India and amongst overseas Indian communities in other parts of Asia, especially Southeast Asia. Confucianism is found predominantly in Mainland China, South Korea, Taiwan and in overseas Chinese populations. Taoism is found mainly in Mainland China, Taiwan, Malaysia and Singapore. Taoism is easily syncretized with Mahayana Buddhism for many Chinese, thus exact religious statistics is difficult to obtain and may be understated or overstated.


Japanese wedding at the Meiji Shrine

 

Hindu festival celebrated by Singapore's Tamil community

 

Orthodox cross procession in Novosibirsk

 

Catholic procession of the Black Nazarene in Manila

 

Muslim men praying in Turkey

Modern conflicts

US forces drop Napalm on suspected Viet Cong positions in 1965

Wounded civilians arrive at a hospital in Aleppo during the Syrian Civil War, October 2012
Some of the events pivotal in the Asia territory related to the relationship with the outside world in the post-Second World War were:

The Chinese Civil War
The Kashmir conflict
The Insurgency in Northeast India
The Korean War
The French-Indochina War
The Vietnam War
The Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation
The Sino-Vietnamese War
The Bangladesh Liberation War
The Yom Kippur War
The Iranian Revolution
The Soviet–Afghan War
The Iran–Iraq War
The Indonesian occupation of East Timor
The Cambodian Killing Fields
The Insurgency in Laos
The Lebanese Civil War
The Sri Lankan Civil War
The Dissolution of the Soviet Union
The Gulf War
The Nepalese Civil War
The Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts
The Nagorno-Karabakh War
The War in Afghanistan
The Iraq War
The 2006 Thai coup d'état
The Burmese Civil War
The Saffron Revolution
The Arab Spring
The Arab–Israeli conflict
The Syrian Civil War
The Sino-Indian War
The 2014 Thai coup d'état
The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant
The Turkish invasion of Syria
The Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen
Culture
[icon]	
This section needs expansion with: More information about general cultural topics other than Nobel prizes. You can help by adding to it. (June 2011)
Main article: Culture of Asia
Nobel prizes

Indian polymath Rabindranath Tagore was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1913, and became Asia's first Nobel laureate
The polymath Rabindranath Tagore, a Bengali poet, dramatist, and writer from Santiniketan, now in West Bengal, India, became in 1913 the first Asian Nobel laureate. He won his Nobel Prize in Literature for notable impact his prose works and poetic thought had on English, French, and other national literatures of Europe and the Americas. He is also the writer of the national anthems of Bangladesh and India.

Other Asian writers who won Nobel Prize for literature include Yasunari Kawabata (Japan, 1968), Kenzaburō Ōe (Japan, 1994), Gao Xingjian (China, 2000), Orhan Pamuk (Turkey, 2006), and Mo Yan (China, 2012). Some may consider the American writer, Pearl S. Buck, an honorary Asian Nobel laureate, having spent considerable time in China as the daughter of missionaries, and based many of her novels, namely The Good Earth (1931) and The Mother (1933), as well as the biographies of her parents of their time in China, The Exile and Fighting Angel, all of which earned her the Literature prize in 1938.

Also, Mother Teresa of India and Shirin Ebadi of Iran were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for their significant and pioneering efforts for democracy and human rights, especially for the rights of women and children. Ebadi is the first Iranian and the first Muslim woman to receive the prize. Another Nobel Peace Prize winner is Aung San Suu Kyi from Burma for her peaceful and non-violent struggle under a military dictatorship in Burma. She is a nonviolent pro-democracy activist and leader of the National League for Democracy in Burma (Myanmar) and a noted prisoner of conscience. She is a Buddhist and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991. Chinese dissident Liu Xiaobo was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for "his long and non-violent struggle for fundamental human rights in China" on 8 October 2010. He is the first Chinese citizen to be awarded a Nobel Prize of any kind while residing in China. In 2014, Kailash Satyarthi from India and Malala Yousafzai from Pakistan were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize "for their struggle against the suppression of children and young people and for the right of all children to education".

Sir C.V. Raman is the first Asian to get a Nobel prize in Sciences. He won the Nobel Prize in Physics "for his work on the scattering of light and for the discovery of the effect named after him".

Japan has won the most Nobel Prizes of any Asian nation with 24 followed by India which has won 13.

Amartya Sen, (born 3 November 1933) is an Indian economist who was awarded the 1998 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for his contributions to welfare economics and social choice theory, and for his interest in the problems of society's poorest members.

Other Asian Nobel Prize winners include Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, Abdus Salam, Malala Yousafzai, Robert Aumann, Menachem Begin, Aaron Ciechanover, Avram Hershko, Daniel Kahneman, Shimon Peres, Yitzhak Rabin, Ada Yonath, Yasser Arafat, José Ramos-Horta and Bishop Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo of Timor Leste, Kim Dae-jung, and 13 Japanese scientists. Most of the said awardees are from Japan and Israel except for Chandrasekhar and Raman (India), Abdus Salam and Malala yousafzai, (Pakistan), Arafat (Palestinian Territories), Kim (South Korea), and Horta and Belo (Timor Leste).

In 2006, Dr. Muhammad Yunus of Bangladesh was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for the establishment of Grameen Bank, a community development bank that lends money to poor people, especially women in Bangladesh. Dr. Yunus received his PhD in economics from Vanderbilt University, United States. He is internationally known for the concept of micro credit which allows poor and destitute people with little or no collateral to borrow money. The borrowers typically pay back money within the specified period and the incidence of default is very low.

The Dalai Lama has received approximately eighty-four awards over his spiritual and political career.[88] On 22 June 2006, he became one of only four people ever to be recognized with Honorary Citizenship by the Governor General of Canada. On 28 May 2005, he received the Christmas Humphreys Award from the Buddhist Society in the United Kingdom. Most notable was the Nobel Peace Prize, presented in Oslo, Norway on 10 December 1989.

Political geography
Main article: Politics of Asia
See also: List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia

From 1841 to 1997, Hong Kong was a British colony.
IranChinaSaudi
ArabiaJapanKazakhstanIndiaMongoliaIndonesiaMalaysiaPhilippinesVietnamSingaporeSouth KoreaNorth KoreaAfghanistanPakistanThailandLaosCambodiaEast TimorBruneiMyanmarBhutanBangladeshNepalTaiwanUzbekistanKyrgyzstanTajikistanTurkmenistanOmanYemenUAEQat.Bah.Kuw.IraqJordanIsraelSyriaTurkeyGeorgiaAzer.ArmeniaCyp.EgyptMaldivesSri LankaRussiaH.K.Macau
Flag	Symbol	Name	Population[2]
(2016)	Area
(km²)	Capital
Afghanistan	National emblem of Afghanistan.svg	Afghanistan	34,656,032	647,500	Kabul
Armenia	Armenia	Armenia	2,924,816	29,743	Yerevan
Azerbaijan	Azerbaijan	Azerbaijan[89]	9,725,376	86,600	Baku
Bahrain	Emblem of Bahrain.svg	Bahrain	1,425,171	760	Manama
Bangladesh	National emblem of Bangladesh.svg	Bangladesh	162,951,560	147,570	Dhaka
Bhutan	Emblem of Bhutan.svg	Bhutan	797,765	38,394	Thimphu
Brunei	Emblem of Brunei.svg	Brunei	423,196	5,765	Bandar Seri Begawan
Cambodia	Cambodia	Cambodia	15,762,370	181,035	Phnom Penh
China	National Emblem of the People's Republic of China (2).svg	China (PRC)	1,403,500,365	9,596,961	Beijing
East Timor	East Timor	East Timor	1,268,671	14,874	Dili
Egypt	Egypt	Egypt[89]	95,688,681	1,010,408	Cairo
Georgia (country)	Georgia (country)	Georgia[89]	3,925,405	69,700	Tbilisi
India	Emblem of India.svg	India	1,324,171,354	3,287,263	New Delhi
Indonesia	Indonesia	Indonesia[89]	261,115,456	1,904,569	Jakarta
Iran	Emblem of Iran.svg	Iran	80,277,428	1,648,195	Tehran
Iraq	Iraq	Iraq	37,202,572	438,317	Baghdad
Israel	Israel	Israel	8,191,828	20,770	Jerusalem (disputed)
Japan	Imperial Seal of Japan.svg	Japan	127,748,513	377,915	Tokyo
Jordan	Jordan	Jordan	9,455,802	89,342	Amman
Kazakhstan	Emblem of Kazakhstan.svg	Kazakhstan[89]	17,987,736	2,724,900	Nur-Sultan
Kuwait	Kuwait	Kuwait	4,052,584	17,818	Kuwait City
Kyrgyzstan	National emblem of Kyrgyzstan 2016.svg	Kyrgyzstan	5,955,734	199,951	Bishkek
Laos	Emblem of Laos.svg	Laos	6,758,353	236,800	Vientiane
Lebanon	Lebanon	Lebanon	6,006,668	10,400	Beirut
Malaysia	Malaysia	Malaysia	31,187,265	329,847	Kuala Lumpur
Maldives	Emblem of Maldives.svg	Maldives	427,756	298	Malé
Mongolia	State emblem of Mongolia.svg	Mongolia	3,027,398	1,564,116	Ulaanbaatar
Myanmar	Myanmar	Myanmar	52,885,223	676,578	Naypyidaw
Nepal	Emblem of Nepal.svg	Nepal	28,982,771	147,181	Kathmandu
North Korea	Emblem of North Korea.svg	North Korea	25,368,620	120,538	Pyongyang
Oman	National emblem of Oman.svg	Oman	4,424,762	309,500	Muscat
Pakistan	Pakistan	Pakistan	211,103,000	881,913	Islamabad
State of Palestine	Coat of arms of Palestine.svg	Palestine	4,790,705	6,220	Ramallah
(Jerusalem) (claimed)
Papua New Guinea	National Emblem of Papua New Guinea.svg	Papua New Guinea[89]	8,084,991	462,840	Port Moresby
Philippines	Philippines	Philippines	103,320,222	343,448	Manila
Qatar	Emblem of Qatar.svg	Qatar	2,569,804	11,586	Doha
Russia	Russia	Russia[89]	143,964,513	17,098,242	Moscow
Saudi Arabia	Emblem of Saudi Arabia.svg	Saudi Arabia	32,275,687	2,149,690	Riyadh
Singapore	Singapore	Singapore	5,622,455	697	Singapore
South Korea	Emblem of South Korea.svg	South Korea	50,791,919	100,210	Seoul
Sri Lanka	Emblem of Sri Lanka.svg	Sri Lanka	20,798,492	65,610	Colombo
Syria	Syria	Syria	18,430,453	185,180	Damascus
Taiwan	National Emblem of the Republic of China.svg	Taiwan (ROC)	23,556,706	36,193	Taipei
Tajikistan	Emblem of Tajikistan.svg	Tajikistan	8,734,951	143,100	Dushanbe
Thailand	Emblem of Thailand.svg	Thailand	68,863,514	513,120	Bangkok
Turkey	Emblem of Turkey.svg	Turkey[90]	79,512,426	783,562	Ankara
Turkmenistan	Emblem of Turkmenistan.svg	Turkmenistan	5,662,544	488,100	Ashgabat
United Arab Emirates	Emblem of the United Arab Emirates.svg	United Arab Emirates	9,269,612	83,600	Abu Dhabi
Uzbekistan	Emblem of Uzbekistan.svg	Uzbekistan	31,446,795	447,400	Tashkent
Vietnam	Emblem of Vietnam.svg	Vietnam	94,569,072	331,212	Hanoi
Yemen	Emblem of Yemen.svg	Yemen	27,584,213	527,968	Sana'a
Within the above-mentioned states are several partially recognized countries with limited to no international recognition. None of them are members of the UN:

Flag	Symbol	Name	Population
Area
(km²)	Capital
Abkhazia	Coat of arms of Abkhazia.svg	Abkhazia	242,862	8,660	Sukhumi
Republic of Artsakh	Coat of arms of Artsakh.svg	Artsakh	146,573	11,458	Stepanakert
South Ossetia	South Ossetia	South Ossetia	51,547	3,900	Tskhinvali
See also
Main articles: Outline of Asia and Index of Asia-related articles
References to articles:

Subregions of Asia
Special topics:

Asian Century
Asian cuisine
Asian furniture
Asian Games
Asian Para Games
Asian Monetary Unit
Asian people
Eastern world
Eurasia
Far East
East Asia
Southeast Asia
South Asia
Central Asia
Fauna of Asia
Flags of Asia
Middle East
Eastern Mediterranean
Levant
Near East
Pan-Asianism
Lists:

List of cities in Asia
List of metropolitan areas in Asia by population
List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia
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 transcontinental country.
 Eastern Thrace region of Turkey is in Europe. Therefore Turkey is a transcontinental country.
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Further reading
Higham, Charles. Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations. Facts on File library of world history. New York: Facts On File, 2004.
Kamal, Niraj. "Arise Asia: Respond to White Peril". New Delhi: Wordsmith, 2002, ISBN 978-81-87412-08-3
Kapadia, Feroz, and Mandira Mukherjee. Encyclopaedia of Asian Culture and Society. New Delhi: Anmol Publications, 1999.
Levinson, David, and Karen Christensen. Encyclopedia of Modern Asia. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2002.
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History of Sparta
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Ancient peloponnese states (interactive version)

Ruins of Sparta from the right bank of the Eurotas. Sparti is in the background and Taygetus behind that.

Same view but rotated more to the northern side of the ruins.
The History of Sparta describes the destiny of the ancient Dorian Greek state known as Sparta from its beginning in the legendary period to its incorporation into the Achaean League under the late Roman Republic, as Allied State, in 146 BC, a period of roughly 1000 years. Since the Dorians were not the first to settle the valley of the Eurotas River in the Peloponnesus of Greece, the preceding Mycenaean and Stone Age periods are described as well. Sparta went on to become a district of modern Greece. Brief mention is made of events in the post-classical periods.

Dorian Sparta rose to dominance in the 6th century BC. At the time of the Persian Wars, it was the recognized leader by assent of the Greek city-states. It subsequently lost that assent through suspicion that the Athenians were plotting to break up the Spartan state after an earthquake destroyed Sparta in 464 BC. When Sparta defeated Athens in the Peloponnesian War, it secured an unrivaled hegemony over southern Greece.[1] Sparta's supremacy was broken following the Battle of Leuctra in 371 BC.[1] It was never able to regain its military supremacy[2] and was finally absorbed by the Achaean League in the 2nd century BC.


Contents
1	Prehistoric period
1.1	Stone age in Sparta
1.2	Mycenaean period in Sparta
2	Legendary period
2.1	Heracles in exile from Sparta
2.2	Return of the Heracleidae
2.3	Dorian invasion
2.4	Dark age in Sparta
3	Proto-historic period
3.1	The reforms of Lycurgus
3.2	Expansion of Sparta in the Peloponnesus
4	7th century BC
5	6th century BC
5.1	Peloponnesian League
5.2	Expeditions outside the Peloponnese
6	5th century BC
6.1	Persian Wars
6.1.1	Battle of Marathon
6.1.2	Battle of Thermopylae
6.1.3	Battle of Plataea
6.1.4	Battle of Mycale
6.2	464 BC Sparta earthquake
6.3	Beginning of animosity with Athens
6.4	Peloponnesian Wars
6.4.1	First Peloponnesian War
6.4.2	Second Peloponnesian War
6.4.2.1	Archidamian war
6.4.2.2	Syracusan expedition
6.4.2.3	Intervention of the Persians
6.4.2.4	The terms of surrender
6.5	The affair of the thirty
7	4th century BC
7.1	Spartan supremacy
7.1.1	Failed intervention in the Persian Empire
7.1.2	The peace of Antalcidas
7.1.3	A new civil war
7.1.4	The peace of Callias
7.1.5	Decline of the population
7.2	Facing the Theban hegemony
7.3	Facing Macedon
8	3rd century BC
9	Roman Sparta
10	Post-classical periods
10.1	Sparta during the Migration Period
10.2	Sparta of the Late Middle Ages
10.3	Modern Sparta
11	Notable Spartans
12	See also
13	Notes
14	References
15	Bibliography
Prehistoric period
See also: Eurotas (river)
Stone age in Sparta
The earliest certain evidence of human settlement in the region of Sparta, consists of pottery dating from the Middle Neolithic period found in the vicinity of Kouphovouno some two kilometres southwest of Sparta.[3]

Mycenaean period in Sparta

Sparta seen from Therapne
Main article: Therapnes
Legendary period
Heracles in exile from Sparta
Main article: Heracles
Return of the Heracleidae
Main article: Heracleidae
Dorian invasion
Main article: Dorian Invasion
This civilization seems to have fallen into decline by the late Bronze Age, when, according to Herodotus, Macedonian tribes from the north marched into Peloponnese, where they were called Dorians and subjugating the local tribes, settled there.[4]

Tradition describes how, some sixty years after the Trojan War, a Dorian migration from the north took place and eventually led to the rise of classical Sparta.[5] This tradition is, however, contradictory and was written down at a time long after the events they supposedly describe. Hence skeptics like Karl Julius Beloch have denied that any such event occurred.[6] Chadwick has argued, on the basis of slight regional variations that he detected in Linear B, that the Dorians had previously lived in the Dorian regions as an oppressed majority, speaking the regional dialect, and emerged when they overthrew their masters.[7]

Dark age in Sparta
Archeologically, Sparta itself begins to show signs of settlement only around 1000 BC, some 200 years after the collapse of Mycenaean civilization.[8] Of the four villages that made up the Spartan Polis, Forrest suggests that the two closest to the Acropolis were the originals, and the two more far-flung settlements were of later foundation. The dual kingship may originate in the fusion of the first two villages.[9] One of the effects of the Mycenaean collapse had been a sharp drop in population. Following that, there was a significant recovery, and this growth in population is likely to have been more marked in Sparta, as it was situated in the most fertile part of the plain.[10]

Between the 8th and 7th centuries BC the Spartans experienced a period of lawlessness and civil strife, later testified by both Herodotus and Thucydides.[11] As a result, they carried out a series of political and social reforms of their own society which they later attributed to a semi-mythical lawgiver, Lycurgus.[12] These reforms mark the beginning of the history of Classical Sparta.

Proto-historic period
The reforms of Lycurgus
Main article: Lycurgus of Sparta

Lycurgus
It is during the reign of King Charillos,[13] that most ancient sources place the life of Lycurgus. Indeed, the Spartans ascribed their subsequent success to Lycurgus, who instituted his reforms at a time when Sparta was weakened by internal dissent and lacked the stability of a united and well-organized community.[5] There are reasons to doubt whether he ever existed, as his name derives from the word for "wolf" which was associated with Apollo, hence Lycurgus could be simply a personification of the god.[14]

J. F. Lazenby suggests, that the dual monarchy may date from this period as a result of a fusion of the four villages of Sparta which had, up until then, formed two factions of the villages of Pitana-Mesoa against the villages of Limnai-Konoura. According to this view, the Kings, who tradition says ruled before this time, were either totally mythical or at best factional chieftains.[15] Lazenby further hypothesizes that other reforms such as the introduction of the Ephors were later innovations that were attributed to Lycurgus.[16]

Expansion of Sparta in the Peloponnesus
The Dorians seem to have set about expanding the frontiers of Spartan territory almost before they had established their own state.[17] They fought against the Argive Dorians to the east and southeast, and also the Arcadian Achaeans to the northwest. The evidence suggests that Sparta, relatively inaccessible because of the topography of the plain of Sparta, was secure from early on: it was never fortified.[17]

Sparta shared the plain with Amyklai which lay to the south and was one of the few places to survive from Mycaenean times and was likely to be its most formidable neighbor. Hence the tradition that Sparta, under its kings Archelaos and Charillos moved north to secure the upper Eurotas valley is plausible.[10] Pharis and Geronthrae were then taken and, though the traditions are a little contradictory, also Amyklai which probably fell in about 750 BC . It is probable that the inhabitants of Geronthrae were driven out while those of Amyklai were simply subjugated to Sparta.[18] Pausanias portrays this as a Dorian versus Achaean conflict.[19] The archaeological record, however, throws doubt on such a cultural distinction.[20]

7th century BC
Tyrtaeus tells that the war to conquer the Messenians, their neighbors on the west, led by Theopompus, lasted 19 years and was fought in the time of the fathers of our fathers. If this phrase is to be taken literally, it would mean that the war occurred around the end of the 8th century BC or the beginning of the 7th.[21] The historicity of the Second Messenian War was long doubted, as neither Herodotus or Thucydides mentions a second war. However, in the opinion of Kennell, a fragment of Tyrtaeus (published in 1990) gives us some confidence that it really occurred (probably in the later 7th century).[22] It was as a result of this second war, according to fairly late sources, that the Messenians were reduced to the semi slave status of helots.[22]

Whether Sparta dominated the regions to its east at the time is less settled. According to Herodotus the Argives' territory once included the whole of Cynuria (the east coast of the Peloponnese) and the island of Cythera.[23] Cynuria's low population - apparent in the archaeological record - does suggest that the zone was contested by the two powers.[24]

In the Second Messenian War, Sparta established itself as a local power in Peloponnesus and the rest of Greece. During the following centuries, Sparta's reputation as a land-fighting force was unequaled.[25]

6th century BC
Peloponnesian League
Main article: Peloponnesian League
Early in the 6th century BC, the Spartan kings Leon and Agasicles made a vigorous attack on Tegea, the most powerful of the Arcadian cities. For some time Sparta had no success against Tegea and suffered a notable defeat at the Battle of the Fetters—the name reflected Spartan intentions to force the Tegea to recognise it as hegemon.[26] For Forrest this marked a change in Spartan policy, from enslavement to a policy of building an alliance that led to the creation of the Peloponesian League. Forrest, hesitantly attributes this change to Ephor Chilon.[27] In building its alliance, Sparta gained two ends, protection of its conquest of Mesene and a free hand against Argos.[28] The Battle of the Champions won about 546 BC (that is at the time that the Lydian Empire fell before Cyrus of Persia) made the Spartans masters of the Cynuria, the borderland between Laconia and Argolis.[28]

In 494 BC, King Cleomenes I, launched what was intended to be a final settling of accounts with the city of Argos - an invasion, with the capture of the city itself, as the objective.[29] Argos did not fall but her losses in the Battle of Sepeia would cripple Argos militarily, and lead to deep civil strife for some time to come.[30] Sparta had come to be acknowledged as the leading state of Hellas and the champion of Hellenism. Croesus of Lydia had formed an alliance with it. Scythian envoys sought its aid to stem the invasion of Darius; to Sparta, the Greeks of Asia Minor appealed to withstand the Persian advance and to aid the Ionian Revolt; Plataea asked for Sparta's protection; Megara acknowledged its supremacy; and at the time of the Persian invasion under Xerxes no state questioned Sparta's right to lead the Greek forces on land or at sea.

Expeditions outside the Peloponnese
At the end of the 6th century BC, Sparta made its first intervention north of the Isthmus when it aided in overthrowing the Athenian tyrant Hippias in 510 BC.[31] Dissension in Athens followed with conflict between Kleisthenes and Isagoras. King Cleomenes turned up in Attica with a small body of troops to back the more conservative Isagoras, whom Cleomenes successfully installed in power. The Athenians, however, soon tired of the foreign king, and Cleomenes found himself expelled by the Athenians.

Cleomenes then proposed an expedition of the entire Peloponnesian League, with himself and his co-King Demaratos in command and the aim of setting up Isagoras as tyrant of Athens. The specific aims of the expedition were kept secret. The secrecy proved disastrous and as dissension broke out the real aims became clearer. First the Corinthians departed. Then a row broke out between Cleomenes and Demaratos with Demaratos too, deciding to go home.[32] As a result of this fiasco the Spartans decided in future not to send out an army with both Kings at its head. It also seems to have changed the nature of the Peloponnesian League. From that time, major decisions were discussed. Sparta was still in charge, but it now had to rally its allies in support of its decisions.[33]

5th century BC
Persian Wars
See also: Greco-Persian Wars
Battle of Marathon
Main article: Battle of Marathon
After hearing a plea for help from Athens who were facing the Persians at Marathon in 490 BC, Sparta decided to honor its laws and wait until the moon was full to send an army. As a result, Sparta's army arrived at Marathon after the battle had been won by the Athenians.

Battle of Thermopylae
Main article: Battle of Thermopylae
In the second campaign, conducted ten years later by Xerxes, Sparta faced the same dilemma. The Persians inconveniently chose to attack during the Olympic truce which the Spartans felt they must honor. Other Greek states which lacked such scruples were making a major effort to assemble a fleet - how could Sparta not contribute on land when others were doing so much on sea?[34] The solution was to provide a small force under Leonidas to defend Thermopylae. However, there are indications that Sparta's religious scruples were merely a cover. From this interpretation, Sparta believed that the defense of Thermopylae was hopeless and wished to make a stand at the Isthmus, but they had to go through the motions or Athens might ally itself with Persia. The loss of Athens's fleet would simply be too great a loss to the Greek resistance to be risked.[35] The alternative view is that, on the evidence of the actual fighting, the pass was supremely defensible, and that the Spartans might reasonably have expected that the forces sent, would be adequate.[36]

In 480 BC, a small force of Spartans, Thespians, and Thebans led by King Leonidas (approximately 300 were full Spartiates, 700 were Thespians, and 400 were Thebans; these numbers do not reflect casualties incurred prior to the final battle), made a legendary last stand at the Battle of Thermopylae against the massive Persian army, inflicting very high casualties on the Persian forces before finally being encircled.[37] From then on Sparta took a more active share and assumed the command of the combined Greek forces by sea and land. The decisive victory of Salamis did not change Sparta's essential dilemma. Ideally, they would wish to fight at the Isthmus where they would avoid the risk of their infantry being caught in the open by the Persian cavalry.

Battle of Plataea
Main article: Battle of Plataea
However, in 479 BC, the remaining Persian forces under Mardonius devastated Attica, Athenian pressure forced Sparta to lead an advance.[38] The outcome was a standoff where both the Persians and the Greeks attempted to fight on favorable terrain, and this was resolved when the Persians attacked during a botched Greek withdrawal. In the resulting Battle of Plataea the Greeks under the generalship of the Spartan Pausanias overthrew the lightly armed Persian infantry, killing Mardonius.[39]

The superior weaponry, strategy, and bronze armour of the Greek hoplites and their phalanx again proved their worth one year later when Sparta assembled at full strength and led a Greek alliance against the Persians at the battle of Plataea. The decisive Greek victory at Plataea put an end to the Greco-Persian War along with Persian ambition of expanding into Europe. Even though this war was won by a pan-Greek army, credit was given to Sparta, who besides being the protagonist at Thermopylae and Plataea, had been the de facto leader of the entire Greek expedition.[40]

Battle of Mycale
Main article: Battle of Mycale
In the same year a united Greek fleet under the Spartan King, Leotychidas, won the Battle of Mycale. When this victory led to a revolt of the Ionian Greeks it was Sparta that rejected their admission to the Hellenic alliance. Sparta proposed that they should abandon their homes in Anatolia and settle in the cities that had supported the Persians.[41] It was Athens who, by offering these cities alliance sowed the seeds of the Delian League.[42] In 478 BC, the Greek fleet led by Pausanias, the victor of Plataea, mounted moves on Cyprus and Byzantium. However, his arrogant behavior forced his recall. Pausanias had so alienated the Ionians that they refused to accept the successor, Dorcis, that Sparta sent to replace him. Instead those newly liberated from Persia turned to Athens.[43] The sources give quite divergent impressions about Spartan reactions to Athens' growing power and this may reflect the divergence of opinion within Sparta.[44] According to this view one Spartan faction was quite content to allow Athens to carry the risk of continuing the war with Persia while an opposing faction deeply resented Athens' challenge to their Greek supremacy.[45]

In later Classical times, Sparta along with Athens, Thebes, and Persia had been the main powers fighting for supremacy against each other. As a result of the Peloponnesian War, Sparta, a traditionally continental culture, became a naval power. At the peak of its power Sparta subdued many of the key Greek states and even managed to overpower the elite Athenian navy. By the end of the 5th century BC, it stood out as a state which had defeated the Athenian Empire and had invaded the Persian provinces in Anatolia, a period which marks the Spartan Hegemony.

464 BC Sparta earthquake
Main article: 464 BC Sparta earthquake
The Sparta earthquake of 464 BC destroyed much of Sparta. Historical sources suggest that the death toll may have been as high as 20,000, although modern scholars suggest that this figure is likely an exaggeration. The earthquake sparked a revolt of the helots, the slave class of Spartan society. Events surrounding this revolt led to an increase in tension between Sparta and their rival Athens and the cancellation of a treaty between them. After the troops of a relief expedition dispatched by conservative Athenians were sent back with cold thanks, Athenian democracy itself fell into the hands of reformers and moved toward a more populist and anti-Spartan policy. Therefore, this earthquake is cited by historical sources as one of the key events that led up to the First Peloponnesian War.

Beginning of animosity with Athens
Sparta's attention was at this time, fully occupied by troubles nearer home; such as the revolt of Tegea (in about 473–471 BC), rendered all the more formidable by the participation of Argos.[46] The most serious, however was the crisis caused by the earthquake which in 464 BC devastated Sparta, costing many lives. In the immediate aftermath, the helots saw an opportunity to rebel. This was followed by the siege of Ithome which the rebel helots had fortified.[47] The pro-Spartan Cimon was successful in getting Athens to send help to put down the rebellion, but this would eventually backfire for the pro-Sparta movement in Athens.[48] The Athenian hoplites that made up the bulk of the force were from the well-to-do section of Athenian society, but were nevertheless openly shocked to discover that the rebels were Greeks like themselves. Sparta began to fear that the Athenian troops might make common cause with the rebels.[49] The Spartans subsequently sent the Athenians home. Providing the official justification that since the initial assault on Ithome had failed, what was now required was a blockade, a task the Spartans did not need Athenian help with. In Athens, this snub resulted in Athens breaking off its alliance with Sparta and allying with its enemy, Argos.[48] Further friction was caused by the consummation of the Attic democracy under Ephialtes and Pericles.[50]

Paul Cartledge hazards that the revolt of helots and perioeci led the Spartans to reorganize their army and integrate the perioeci into the citizen hoplite regiments. Certainly a system where citizens and non citizens fought together in the same regiments was unusual for Greece.[51] Hans van Wees is, however, unconvinced by the manpower shortage explanation of the Spartans' use of non citizen hoplites. He agrees that the integration of perioeci and citizens occurred sometime between the Persian and the Peloponnesian Wars but doesn't regard that as a significant stage. The Spartans had been using non-citizens as hoplites well before that and the proportion did not change. He doubts that the Spartans ever subscribed to the citizen only hoplite force ideal, so beloved by writers such as Aristotle.[52]

Peloponnesian Wars

Sparta and its allies during the Peloponnesian War. The strategies described prevailed at the beginning of the war. Toward the end Persian intervention made possible a strong Spartan fleet that ultimately destroyed Athenian sea power.
The Peloponnesian Wars were the protracted armed conflicts, waged on sea and land, of the last half of the 5th century BC between the Delian League controlled by Athens and the Peloponnesian League dominated by Sparta over control of the other Greek city-states. The Delian League is often called "the Athenian Empire" by scholars. The Peloponnesian League believed it was defending itself against Athenian aggrandizement.

The war had ethnic overtones that generally but not always applied: the Delian League included populations of Athenians and Ionians while the Peloponnesian League was mainly of Dorians, except that a third power, the Boeotians, had sided tentatively with the Peloponnesian League. They were never fully trusted by the Spartans. Ethnic animosity was fueled by the forced incorporation of small Dorian states into the Delian League, who appealed to Sparta. Motivations, however, were complex, including local politics and considerations of wealth.

In the end Sparta won, but it declined soon enough and was soon embroiled with wars with Boeotia and Persia, until being overcome finally by Macedon.

First Peloponnesian War
Main article: First Peloponnesian War
When the First Peloponnesian War broke out, Sparta was still preoccupied suppressing the helot revolt,[50] hence its involvement was somewhat desultory.[53] It amounted to little more than isolated expeditions, the most notable of which involved helping to inflict a defeat on the Athenians at the Battle of Tanagra in 457 BC in Boeotia. However they then returned home giving the Athenians an opportunity to defeat the Boeotians at the battle of Oenophyta and so overthrowing Boeotia.[53] When the helot revolt was finally ended, Sparta needed a respite, seeking and gaining a five-year truce with Athens. By contrast, however, Sparta sought a thirty-year peace with Argos to ensure that they could strike Athens unencumbered. Thus Sparta was fully able to exploit the situation when Megara, Boeotia and Euboea revolted, sending an army into Attica. The war ended with Athens deprived of its mainland possessions but keeping its vast Aegean Empire intact. Both of Sparta's Kings were exiled for permitting Athens to regain Euboea and Sparta agreed to a Thirty Year Peace.But the treaty was broken when Sparta warred with Euboea.[54]

Second Peloponnesian War
Main article: Peloponnesian War
Within six years, Sparta was proposing to its allies to go to war with Athens in support of the rebellion in Samos. On that occasion Corinth successfully opposed Sparta and they were voted down.[55] When the Peloponnesian War, finally broke out in 431 BC the chief public complaint against Athens was its alliance with Corinth's enemy Korkyra and Athenenian treatment of Potidea. However, according to Thucydides the real cause of the war was Sparta's fear of the growing power of Athens.[56] The Second Peloponnesian War, fought from 431–404 BC would be the longest and costliest war in Greek history.

Archidamian war
Sparta entered with the proclaimed goal of the "liberation of the Greeks" — an aim that required a total defeat of Athens. Their method was to invade Attica in the hope of provoking Athens to give battle. Athens, meanwhile, planned a defensive war. The Athenians would remain in their city, behind their impenetrable walls, and use their naval superiority to harass the Spartan coastline.[57] In 425 BC, a body of Spartans surrendered to the Athenians at Pylos, casting doubt onto their ability to win the war.[58] This was ameliorated by the expedition of Brasidas to Thrace, the one area where Athens possessions were accessible by land, which made possible, the compromise of 421 BC known as the Peace of Nicias. The war between 431 and 421 BC is termed the "Archidamian War" after the Spartan king who invaded Attica when it began, Archidamus II.

Syracusan expedition
Main article: Sicilian Expedition
The war resumed in 415 BC and lasted until 404 BC. In 415 BC, Athens decided to capture Syracuse, a colony of Dorian Corinth. The arguments advanced in the assembly were that it would be a profitable possession and an enhancement of the empire. They invested a large portion of the state resources in a military expedition, but recalled one of its commanders, Alcibiades, on a trumped-up charge of impiety (some religious statues had been mutilated) for which he faced the death penalty. Escaping in his ship he deserted to Sparta. Having defaulted on the inquiry he was convicted in absentia and sentenced to death.

At first Sparta hesitated to resume military operations. In 414 BC, a combined force of Athenians and Argives raided the Laconian coast, after which Sparta began to take Alcibiades' advice. The success of Sparta and the eventual capture of Athens in 404 BC were aided partly by that advice. He induced Sparta to send Gylippus to conduct the defence of Syracuse, to fortify Decelea in northern Attica, and to adopt a vigorous policy of aiding Athenian allies to revolt. The next year they marched north, fortified Deceleia, cut down all the olive groves, which produced Athens' major cash crop, and denied them the use of the countryside. Athens was now totally dependent on its fleet, then materially superior to the Spartan navy.[58] Spartan generals showed themselves to be not only inexperienced at naval warfare but in the assessment of Forrest, they were often incompetent or brutal or both.[59]

Gylippus did not arrive alone at Syracuse. Collecting a significant force from Sicily and Spartan hoplites serving overseas he took command of the defense. The initial Athenian force under Nicias had sailed boldly into the Great Harbor of Syracuse to set up camp at the foot of the city, which was on a headland. Gylippus collected an international army of pro-Spartan elements from many parts of the eastern Mediterranean on the platform of liberation of Greece from the tyranny of Athens. Ultimately the Athenian force was not large enough to conduct an effective siege. They attempted to wall in the city but were prevented by a counter-wall. A second army under Demosthenes arrived. Finally the Athenian commanders staked everything on a single assault against a weak point on the headland, Epipolae, but were thrown back with great losses. They were about to depart for Athens when an eclipse of the full moon moved the soothsayers to insist they remain for another nine days, just the time needed for the Syracusians to prepare a fleet to block the mouth of the harbor.[60]

Events moved rapidly toward disaster for the Athenians. Attempting to break out of the harbor they were defeated in a naval battle. The admiral, Eurymedon, was killed. Losing confidence in their ability to win, they abandoned the remaining ships and the wounded and attempted to march out by land. The route was blocked at every crossing by Syracusians, who anticipated this move. The Athenian army marched under a rain of missiles. When Nicias inadvertently marched ahead of Demosthenes the Syracusians surrounded the latter and forced a surrender, to which that of Nicias was soon added. Both leaders were executed, despite the protests of Gylippus, who wanted to take them back to Sparta. Several thousand prisoners were penned up in the quarries without the necessities of life or the removal of the dead. After several months the remaining Athenians were ransomed. The failure of the expedition in 413 was a material loss the Athenians could hardly bear, but the war continued for another ten years.

Intervention of the Persians
Spartan shortcomings at sea were by this time manifest to them, especially under the tuteledge of Alcibiades. The lack of funds which could have proved fatal to Spartan naval warfare, was remedied by the intervention of Persia, which supplied large subsidies. In 412 the agents of Tissaphernes, the Great King's governor of such parts of the coast of Asia Minor as he could control, approached Sparta with a deal. The Great King would supply funds for the Spartan fleet if the Spartans would guarantee to the king his ancestral lands; to wit, the coast of Asia Minor with the Ionian cities (it was not really Persian ancestral land). An agreement was reached. A Spartan fleet and negotiator was sent to Asia Minor. The negotiator was Alcibiades, now persona non grata in Sparta because of his new mistress, the wife of King Agis, then away commanding the garrison at Deceleia. After befriending Tissaphernes Alcibiades was secretly offered an honorable return to Athens if he would influence the latter on their behalf. He was a double agent, 411–407. The Spartans received little money or expert advice.[59]

By 408 the Great King had perceived that the agreement with the Spartans was not being implemented. He sent his brother, Cyrus the younger, to relieve Tissaphernes of his command of Lydia. Tissaphernes was pushed aside to the governorship of Caria. Exposed, Alcibiades departed for Athens in 407. In his place Sparta sent an agent of similar capabilities, a friend of King Agis, Lysander, who as "a diplomat and organizer ... was almost flawless, unless we count arrogance, dishonesty, unscrupulousness and brutality as flaws."[61] He and Cyrus got along well. Upgrade of the Spartan fleet proceeded rapidly. In 406 Alcibiades returned as the commander of an Athenian squadron with the intent of destroying the new Spartan fleet, but it was too late. He was defeated by Lysander at the Battle of Notium. The suspicious Athenian government repudiated its arrangement with Alcibiades. He went into exile a second time, to take up residence in a remote villa in the Aegean, now a man without a country.

Lysander's term as navarch then came to an end. He was replaced by Callicratidas but Cyrus now stinted his payments for the Spartan fleet. The funds allocated by the Great King had been used up. On Callicratides' defeat and death at the Battle of Arginusae the Spartans offered peace on generous terms. The Delian League would be left in place. Athens would still be allowed to collect tribute for its defense. The war party at Athens, however, mistrusted Sparta. One of its leaders, Cleophon, addressed the assembly wearing his armor, drunk. He demanded the Spartans withdraw from all cites they then held as a precondition of peace. The assembly rejected the Spartan offer. It undertook a new offensive against Spartan allies in the Aegean.

In the winter of 406/405 those allies met with Cyrus at Ephesus. Together they formulated an appeal to Sparta that Lysander be sent out for a second term. Both Spartan political norms and the Spartan constitution should have prevented his second term, but in the wake of the new Spartan defeat a circumvention was found. Lysander would be the secretary of a nominal navarch, Aracus, with the rank of vice-admiral. Lysander was again entrusted with all the resources needed to maintain and operate the Spartan fleet. Cyrus supplied the funds from his own resources. The Great King now recalled Cyrus to answer for the execution of certain members of the royal family. Cyrus appointed Lysander governor in his place, giving him the right to collect taxes.[62] This trust was justified in 404 BC when Lysander destroyed the Athenian fleet at the Battle of Aegospotami.

Lysander then sailed at his leisure for Athens to impose a blockade. If he encountered a state of the Delian League on his way he gave the Athenian garrison the option of withdrawing to Athens; if they refused, their treatment was harsh. He replaced democracies with pro-Spartan decarchies under a Spartan harmost.

The terms of surrender
After the Battle of Aegospotami the Spartan navy sailed where it pleased unopposed. A fleet of 150 ships entered the Saronic Gulf to impose a blockade on Piraeus. Athens was cut off. In the winter of 404 the Athenians sent a delegation to King Agis at Deceleia proposing to become a Spartan ally if only they would be allowed to keep the walls intact. He sent them on to Sparta. The delegation was turned back on the road by the ephors. After hearing the terms they suggested the Athenians return with better ones.

The Athenians appointed Theramenes to discuss the matter with Lysander, but the latter had made himself unavailable. Theramenes found him, probably on Samos. After a wait of three months he returned to Athens saying that Lysander had delayed him and that he was to negotiate with Sparta directly. A board of nine delegates was appointed to go with Thermenes to Sparta. This time the delegation was allowed to pass.

The disposition of Athens was then debated in the Spartan assembly, which apparently had the power of debate, of veto and of counterproposition. Moreover, the people in assembly were the final power. Corinth and Thebes proposed that Athens be leveled and the land be turned into a pasture for sheep. Agis, supported by Lysander, also recommended the destruction of the city. The assembly refused, stating that they would not destroy a city that had served Greece so well in the past, alluding to Athens' contribution to the defeat of the Persians.

Instead the Athenians were offered terms of unconditional surrender: the long walls must be dismantled, Athens must withdraw from all states of the Delian League and Athenian exiles must be allowed to return. The Athenians could keep their own land. The returning delegates found the population of Athens starving to death. The surrender was accepted in assembly in April, 404, 27 years after the start of the war, with little opposition. A few weeks later Lysander arrived with a Spartan garrison. They began to tear down the walls to the tune of pipes played by young female pipers. Lysander reported to the ephors that "Athens is taken." The ephors complained of his wordiness, stating that "taken" would have been sufficient.[63]

Some modern historians have proposed a less altruistic reason for the Spartans' mercy—the need for a counterweight to Thebes[64]—though Anton Powell sees this as an excess of hindsight. It is doubtful that the Spartans could have predicted that it would be Thebes that would someday pose a serious threat, later defeating the Spartans at the Battle of Leuctra. Lysander's political opponents may have defended Athens not out of gratitude, but out of fear of making Lysander too powerful.[65]

The affair of the thirty
Main article: Thirty Tyrants
In the spring of 404 BC, the terms of surrender required the Athenians to tear down the long walls between the city and the port of Piraeus. When internal dissent prevented the Athenians from restoring a government Lysander dissolved the democracy and set up a government of 30 oligarchs that would come to be known as the Thirty. These were pro-Spartan men. Originally voted into power by the Assembly with a mandate to codify the laws, they immediately requested the assistance of the Spartan garrison to arrest their enemies.[66] With them they assassinated persons who were pro-democracy and confiscated their property.[67]

The disquiet of Sparta's allies in the Peloponnesian League can be seen in the defiance of Boeotia, Elis and Corinth in offering refuge to those who opposed the rule of the Thirty. Lysander departed Athens to establish decarchies, governing boards of 10 men, elsewhere in the former Athenian Empire, leaving the Spartan garrison under the command of the Thirty. Taking advantage of a general anti-Spartan backlash and a change of regime in Boeotia to an anti-Spartan government, the exiles and non-Athenian supporters (who were promised citizenship) launched an attack from Boeotia on Athens under Thrasybulus and in the Battle of Phyle followed by the Battle of Munichia and the Battle of Piraeus defeated the Athenian supporters of the Thirty with the Spartan garrison regaining partial control of Athens. They set up a decarchy.[68]

Athens was on the brink of civil war. Both sides sent delegates to present their case before King Pausanias. The Thirty were heard first. They complained that Piraeus was being occupied by a Boeotian puppet government. Pausanias immediately appointed Lysander harmost (governor), which required the assent of the ephors, and ordered him to Sparta with his brother, who had been made navarch over 40 ships. They were to put down the rebellion and expel the foreigners.

After the Ten had been fully heard, Pausanias, obtaining the assent of three out of five ephors, went himself to Athens with a force including men from all the allies except the suspect Boeotia and Corinth. He met and superseded Lysander on the road. A battle ensued against Thrasybulus, whose forces killed two Spartan polemarchs but were driven at last into a marsh and trapped there. Pausanias broke off. He set up the board of 15 peace commissioners that had been sent with him by the Spartan assembly and invited both sides to a conference. The final reconciliation restored democracy to Athens. The Thirty held Eleusis, as they had previously massacred the entire population. It was made independent of Athens as a refuge for supporters of the Thirty. A general amnesty was declared. The Spartans ended their occupation.[69]

The former oligarchs repudiated the peace. After failure to raise assistance for their cause among the other states of Greece, they attempted a coup. Faced with the new Athenian state at overwhelming odds they were lured into a conference, seized and executed. Eleusis reverted to Athens.[70] Sparta refused further involvement. Meanwhile, Lysander, who had been recalled to Sparta after his relief by Pausanias, with the assistance of King Agis (the second king) charged Pausanias with being too lenient with the Athenians. Not only was he acquitted by an overwhelming majority of the jurors (except for the supporters of Agis) including all five ephors, but the Spartan government repudiated all the decarchs that had been established by Lysander in former states of the Athenian Empire and ordered the former governments restored.[71]

4th century BC
Spartan supremacy
Main article: Spartan hegemony
The two major powers in the eastern Mediterranean in the 5th century BC had been Athens and Sparta. The defeat of Athens by Sparta resulted in Spartan hegemony in the early 4th century BC.

Failed intervention in the Persian Empire
Sparta's close relationship with Cyrus the Younger continued when she gave covert support to his attempt to seize the Persian throne. After Cyrus was killed at the Battle of Cunaxa, Sparta briefly attempted to be conciliatory towards Artaxerxes, the Persian king. In late 401 BC, however, Sparta decided to answer an appeal of several Ionian cities and sent an expedition to Anatolia.[72] Though the war was fought under the banner of Greek liberty, the Spartan defeat at the Battle of Cnidus in 394 BC was widely welcomed by the Greek cities of the region. Though Persian rule meant to the cities of mainland Asia, the payment of tribute, this seems to have been considered a lesser evil than Spartan rule.[72]


Gytheum, Sparta's port
The peace of Antalcidas
Main article: Peace of Antalcidas
At the end of 397 BC, Persia had sent a Rhodian agent with gifts to opponents of Sparta on the mainland of Greece. However, these inducements served mainly as encouragement to those who were already resentful of Sparta. In the event, it was Sparta who made the first aggressive move using, as a pretext, Boeotia's support for her ally Locris against Sparta's ally Phocis. An army under Lysander and Pausanias was despatched. As Pausanias was somewhat lukewarm to the whole enterprise, Lysander went on ahead. Having detached Orchomenos from the Boeotian League, Lysander was killed at the Battle of Haliartus. When Pausanias arrived rather than avenge the defeat he simply sought a truce to bury the bodies. For this Pausanias was prosecuted, this time successfully and went into exile.[73]

At the Battle of Coronea, Agesilaus I, the new king of Sparta, had slightly the better of the Boeotians and at Corinth, the Spartans maintained their position, yet they felt it necessary to rid themselves of Persian hostility and if possible use Persian power to strengthen their own position at home: they therefore concluded with Artaxerxes II the humiliating Peace of Antalcidas in 387 BC, by which they surrendered to the Great King of the Greek cities of the Asia Minor coast and of Cyprus, and stipulated for the autonomy of all other Greek cities. Finally, Sparta and Persia were given the right to make war on those who did not respect the terms of the treaty.[74] It was to be a very one sided interpretation of autonomy that Sparta enforced. The Boeotian League was broken up on the one hand while the Spartan dominated Peloponnesian League was excepted. Further, Sparta did not consider that autonomy included the right of a city to choose democracy over Sparta's preferred form of government.[75] In 383 BC an appeal from two cities of the Chalkidice and of the King of Macedon gave Sparta a pretext to break up the Chalkidian League headed by Olynthus. After several years of fighting Olynthus was defeated and the cities of the Chalkidice were enrolled into the Peloponnesian League. The real beneficiary of this conflict was Macedon, though Paul Cartledge considers it to be indulging in hindsight, to blame Sparta for enabling the rise of Philip II.[76]

A new civil war
During the Corinthian War Sparta faced a coalition of the leading Greek states: Thebes, Athens, Corinth, and Argos. The alliance was initially backed by Persia, whose lands in Anatolia had been invaded by Sparta and which feared further Spartan expansion into Asia.[77] Sparta achieved a series of land victories, but many of her ships were destroyed at the battle of Cnidus by a Greek-Phoenician mercenary fleet that Persia had provided to Athens. The event severely damaged Sparta's naval power but did not end its aspirations of invading further into Persia, until Conon the Athenian ravaged the Spartan coastline and provoked the old Spartan fear of a helot revolt.[78]

After a few more years of fighting in 387 BC, the Peace of Antalcidas was established, according to which all Greek cities of Ionia would return to Persian control, and Persia's Asian border would be free of the Spartan threat.[78] The effects of the war were to reaffirm Persia's ability to interfere successfully in Greek politics and to affirm Sparta's weakened hegemonic position in the Greek political system.[79]

In 382 BC, Phoebidas, while leading a Spartan army north against Olynthus made a detour to Thebes and seized the Kadmeia, the citadel of Thebes. The leader of the anti-Spartan faction was executed after a show trial, and a narrow clique of pro-Spartan partisans was placed in power in Thebes, and other Boeotian cities. It was a flagrant breach of the Peace of Antalcidas.[80] It was the seizure of the Kadmeia that led to Theban rebellion and hence to the outbreak of the Boeotian War. Sparta started this war with the strategic initiative, however, Sparta failed to achieve its aims.[81] Early on, a botched attack on Piraeus by the Spartan commander Sphodrias undermined Sparta's position by driving Athens into the arms of Thebes.[82] Sparta then met defeat at sea (the Battle of Naxos) and on land (the Battle of Tegyra) and failed to prevent the re-establishment of the Boeotian League and creation of the Second Athenian League.[83]

The peace of Callias
In 371 BC, a fresh peace congress was summoned at Sparta to ratify the Peace of Callias. Again the Thebans refused to renounce their Boeotian hegemony, and the Spartan's sent a force under King Cleombrotus in an attempt to enforce Theban acceptance. When the Thebans gave battle at Leuctra, it was more out of brave despair than hope.[84] However, it was Sparta that was defeated and this, along with the death of King Cleombrotus dealt a crushing blow to Spartan military prestige.[85] The result of the battle was to transfer supremacy from Sparta to Thebes.

Decline of the population
As Spartan citizenship was inherited by blood, Sparta now increasingly faced a helot population that vastly outnumbered its citizens. The alarming decline of Spartan citizens was commented on by Aristotle.[citation needed]

Facing the Theban hegemony

Sparta's sphere of influence in 362 BC is shown in yellow.
Sparta never fully recovered from the losses that the Spartans suffered at Leuctra in 371 BC and the subsequent helot revolts. Nonetheless, it was able to continue as a regional power for over two centuries. Neither Philip II nor his son Alexander the Great attempted to conquer Sparta itself.

By the winter of late 370 BC, King Agesilaus took the field, not against Thebes, but in an attempt to preserve at least a toehold of influence for Sparta in Arkadia. This backfired when, in response, the Arkadians sent an appeal for help to Boeotia. Boeotia responded by sending a large army, led by Epaminondas, which first marched on Sparta itself and then moved to Messenia where the helots had already rebelled. Epaminondas made that rebellion permanent by fortifying the city of Messene.[86]

The final showdown was in 362 BC, by which time several of Boetia's former allies, such as Mantinea and Elis, had joined Sparta. Athens also fought with Sparta. The resulting Battle of Mantinea was won by Boetia and her allies but in the moment of victory, Epaminondas was killed.[87] In the aftermath of the battle both Sparta's enemies and her allies swore a common peace. Only Sparta itself refused because it would not accept the independence of Messenia.[88]

Facing Macedon

Eurotas River
Sparta had neither the men nor the money to recover her lost position, and the continued existence on her borders of an independent Messenia and Arcadia kept her in constant fear for her own safety. She did, indeed, join with Athens and Achaea in 353 BC to prevent Philip II of Macedon passing Thermopylae and entering Phocis, but beyond this, she took no part in the struggle of Greece with the new power which had sprung up on her northern borders. The final showdown saw Philip fighting Athens and Thebes at Chaeronea. Sparta was pinned down at home by Macedonian allies such as Messene and Argos and took no part.[89]

After the Battle of Chaeronea, Philip II of Macedon entered the Peloponnese. Sparta alone refused to join Philip's "Corinthian League" but Philip engineered the transfer of certain border districts to the neighbouring states of Argos, Arcadia and Messenia.[90]

During Alexander's campaigns in the east, the Spartan king, Agis III sent a force to Crete in 333 BC with the aim of securing the island for Sparta.[91] Agis next took command of allied Greek forces against Macedon, gaining early successes, before laying siege to Megalopolis in 331 BC. A large Macedonian army under general Antipater marched to its relief and defeated the Spartan-led force in a pitched battle.[92] More than 5,300 of the Spartans and their allies were killed in battle, and 3,500 of Antipater's troops.[93] Agis, now wounded and unable to stand, ordered his men to leave him behind to face the advancing Macedonian army so that he could buy them time to retreat. On his knees, the Spartan king slew several enemy soldiers before being finally killed by a javelin.[94] Alexander was merciful, and he only forced the Spartans to join the League of Corinth, which they had previously refused to join.[95]

The memory of this defeat was still fresh in Spartan minds when the general revolt against Macedonian rule known as the Lamian War broke out — hence Sparta stayed neutral.[96]

Even during its decline, Sparta never forgot its claims on being the "defender of Hellenism" and its Laconic wit. An anecdote has it that when Philip II sent a message to Sparta saying "If I enter Laconia, I will raze Sparta", the Spartans responded with the single, terse reply: "If."[97]

When Philip created the league of the Greeks on the pretext of unifying Greece against Persia, the Spartans chose not to join—they had no interest in joining a pan-Greek expedition if it was not under Spartan leadership. Thus, upon the conquest of Persia, Alexander the Great sent to Athens 300 suits of Persian armour with the following inscription "Alexander, son of Philip, and all the Greeks except the Spartans, give these offerings taken from the foreigners who live in Asia [emphasis added]".

3rd century BC

Pyrrhus' Siege of Sparta, 272 BC,
by François Topino-Lebrun (1792)
During Demetrius Poliorcetes campaign to conquer the Peloponnese in 294 BC, the Spartans led by Archidamus IV attempted to resist but were defeated in two battles. Had Demetrius not decided to turn his attention to Macedonia the city would have fallen.[98] In 293 BC, a Spartan force, under Cleonymus, inspired Boeotia to defy Demetrius but Cleonymus soon departed leaving Thebes in the lurch.[99] In 280 BC, a Spartan army, led by King Areus, again marched north, this time under the pretext of saving some sacred land near Delphi from the Aetolians. They somewhat pulled the moral high ground from under themselves, by looting the area. It was at this point that the Aetolians caught them and defeated them.[100]

In 272 BC, Cleonymus of Sparta (who had been displaced as King by Areus[101]), persuaded Pyrrhus to invade the Peloponnese.[102] Pyrrhus laid siege to Sparta confident that he could take the city with ease, however, the Spartans, with even the women taking part in the defence, succeeded in beating off Pyrrhus' attacks.[103] At this point Pyrrhus received an appeal from an opposition Argive faction, for backing against the pro-Gonatas ruler of Argos, and he withdrew from Sparta.[104] In 264 BC, Sparta formed an alliance with Athens and Ptolomeic Egypt (along with a number smaller Greek cities) in an attempt to break free of Macedon.[105] During the resulting Chremonidean War the Spartan King Areus led two expeditions to the Isthmus where Corinth was garrisoned by Macedonia, he was killed in the second.[106] When the Achaean League was expecting an attack from Aetolia, Sparta sent an army under Agis to help defend the Isthmus, but the Spartans were sent home when it seemed that no attack would materialize.[107] In about 244 BC, an Aetolian army raided Laconia, carrying off, (it was said) 50,000 captives,[5] although that is likely to be an exaggeration.[108] Grainger has suggested that this raid was part of Aetolia's project to build a coalition of Peloponnesian cities. Though Aetolia was primarily concerned with confining Achaea, because the cities concerned were hostile to Sparta, Aetolia needed to demonstrate her anti-Spartan credentials.[109]


Trial of Agis
During the 3rd century BC, a social crisis slowly emerged: wealth had become concentrated amongst about 100 families[110] and the number of equals (who had always formed the backbone of the Spartan army) had fallen to 700 (less than a tenth of its 9000 strong highpoint in the 7th century BC).[110] Agis IV was the first Spartan king to attempt reform. His program combined debt cancellation and land reform. Opposition from King Leonidas was removed when he was deposed on somewhat dubious grounds. However, his opponents exploited a period when Agis IV was absent from Sparta and, on his return he was subjected to a travesty of a trial.[111]

The next attempt at reform came from Cleomenes III, the son of King Leonidas. In 229 BC, Cleomenes led an attack on Megalopolis, hence provoking war with Achaea. Aratus, who led the Achaean League forces, adopted a very cautious strategy, despite having 20,000 to Cleomenes 5000 men. Cleomenes was faced with obstruction from the Ephors which probably reflected a general lack of enthusiasm amongst the citizens of Sparta.[112] Nonetheless he succeeded in defeating Aratus.[113] With this success behind him he left the citizen troops in the field and with the mercenaries, marched on Sparta to stage a coup d'état. The ephorate was abolished - indeed four out of five of them had been killed during Cleomenes' seizure of power.[114] Land was redistributed enabling a widening of the citizen body.[114] Debts were cancelled. Cleomenes gave to Sphaerus, his stoic advisor, the task of restoring the old severe training and simple life. Historian Peter Green comments that giving such a responsibility to a non-Spartan was a telling indication of the extent that Sparta had lost her Lycurgian traditions.[114] These reforms excited hostility amongst the wealthy of the Peloponnese who feared social revolution. For others, especially among the poor, Cleomenes inspired hope. This hope was quickly dashed when Cleomenes started taking cities and it became obvious that social reform outside Sparta was the last thing on his mind.[115]

Cleomenes' reforms had as their aim, the restoration of Spartan power. Initially Cleomenes was successful, taking cities that had until then been part of the Achaean League[116] and winning the financial backing of Egypt.[117] However Aratus, the leader of the Achaean League, decided to ally with Achaea's enemy, Macedonia. With Egypt deciding to cut financial aid Cleomenes decided to risk all on one battle.[118] In the resulting Battle of Sellasia in 222 BC, Cleomenes was defeated by the Achaeans and Macedonia. Antigonus III Doson, the king of Macedon ceremonially entered Sparta with his army, something Sparta had never endured before. The ephors were restored, whilst the kingship was suspended.[119]

At the beginning of the Social War in 220 BC, envoys from Achaea unsuccessfully attempted to persuade Sparta to take the field against Aetolia. Aetolian envoys were at first equally unsuccessful but their presence was used as a pretext by Spartan royalists who staged a coup d'état that restored the dual kingship. Sparta then immediately entered the war on the side of Aetolia.[120]

Roman Sparta
The sources on Nabis, who took power in 207 BC, are so uniformly hostile that it is impossible today to judge the truth of the accusation against him - that his reforms were undertaken only to serve Nabis' interests.[121] Certainly his reforms went far deeper than those of Cleomenes who had liberated 6000 helots merely as an emergency measure.[122] The Encyclopædia Britannica states:

Were we to trust the accounts given by Polybius and Livy, we would dismiss him little better than a bandit chieftain, holding Sparta by means of extreme cruelty and oppression and using mercenary troops to a large extent in his wars.[5]

The historian W.G. Forest is willing to take these accusations at face value including that he murdered his ward, and participated in state sponsored piracy and brigandage - but not the self-interested motives ascribed to him. He sees him as a ruthless version of Cleomenes, sincerely attempting to solve Sparta's social crisis.[123] He initiated the building of Sparta's first walls which extended to some 6 miles.[124]

It was this point that Achaea switched her alliance with Macedon to support Rome. As Achaea was Sparta's main rival, Nabis leaned towards Macedonia. It was getting increasingly difficult for Macedonia to hold Argos, so Philip V of Macedon decided to give Argos to Sparta which increased tension with the Achaean League. Nonetheless, he was careful not to violate the letter of his alliance with Rome.[123] After the conclusion of the wars with Philip V, Sparta's control of Argos contradicted the official Roman policy of freedom to the Greeks and Titus Quinctius Flamininus organized a large army with which he invaded Laconia and laid siege to Sparta.[125] Nabis was forced to capitulate, evacuating all his possessions outside Laconia, surrendering the Laconian seaports and his navy, and paying an indemnity of 500 talents, while freed slaves were returned to their former masters.[125][126]

Though the territory under his control now consisted only of the city of Sparta and its immediate environs, Nabis still hoped to regain his former power. In 192 BC, seeing that the Romans and their Achaean allies were distracted by the imminent war with King Antiochus III of Syria and the Aetolian League, Nabis attempted to recapture the harbor city of Gythium and the Laconian coastline.[127] Initially, he was successful, capturing Gythium and defeating the Achaean League in a minor naval battle.[127] Soon after, however, his army was routed by the Achaean general Philopoemen and shut up within the walls of Sparta. After ravaging the surrounding countryside, Philopoemen returned home.[127]

Within a few months, Nabis appealed to the Aetolian League to send troops so that he might protect his territory against the Romans and the Achaean League.[127] The Aetolians responded by sending an army to Sparta.[128] Once there, however, the Aetolians betrayed Nabis, assassinating him while he was drilling his army outside the city.[128] The Aetolians then attempted to take control of the city, but were prevented from doing so by an uprising of the citizens.[128] The Achaeans, seeking to take advantage of the ensuing chaos, dispatched Philopoemen to Sparta with a large army. Once there, he compelled the Spartans to join the Achaean League ending their independence.[129]

Sparta played no active part in the Achaean War in 146 BC when the Achaean League was defeated by the Roman general Lucius Mummius. Subsequently, Sparta become a free city in the Roman sense, some of the institutions of Lycurgus were restored [130] and the city became a tourist attraction for the Roman elite who came to observe exotic Spartan customs.[n 1] The former Perioecic communities were not restored to Sparta and some of them were organized as the "League of Free Laconians".

After 146 BC, sources for Spartan history are somewhat fragmentary.[133] Pliny describes its freedom as being empty, though Chrimes argues that whilst this may be true in the area of external relations, Sparta retained a high level of autonomy in internal matters.[134]

A passage in Suetonius reveals that the Spartans were clients of the powerful patrician clan of the Claudii. Octavians's wife Livia was a member of the Claudii which might explain why Sparta was one the few Greek cities that backed Octavian first in the war against Brutus and Cassius in 42 BC then in the war against Mark Antony in 30 BC.[135]

During the late 1st century BC and much of the 1st century AD Sparta was dominated by the powerful family of the Euryclids which acted something like a "client-dynasty" for the Romans.[136] After the fall of the Euryclids from grace during the reign of Nero the city was ruled by republican institutions and civic life seems to have flourished. During the 2nd century AD a 12 kilometers long aqueduct was built.

The Romans fielded Spartan auxiliary troops in their wars against the Parthians under the emperors Lucius Verus and Caracalla.[137] It is likely that the Romans wished to use the legend of Spartan prowess.[137] After an economic decline in the 3rd century, urban prosperity returned in the 4th century and Sparta even became a minor center of high studies as attested in some of the letters of Libanius.

Post-classical periods
Sparta during the Migration Period
In 396 AD, Alaric sacked Sparta and, though it was rebuilt, the revived city was much smaller than before.[138] The city was finally abandoned during this period when many of the population centers of the Peloponnese were raided by an Avaro-Slav army. Some settlement by Proto-Slavic tribes occurred around this time.[139] The scale of the Slavic incursions and settlement in the later 6th and especially in the 7th century remain a matter of dispute. The Slavs occupied most of the Peloponnese, as evidenced by Slavic toponyms, with the exception of the eastern coast, which remained in Byzantine hands. The latter was included in the thema of Hellas, established by Justinian II ca. 690.[140][141]

Under Nikephoros I, following a Slavic revolt and attack on Patras, a determined Hellenization process was carried out. According to the (not always reliable) Chronicle of Monemvasia, in 805 the Byzantine governor of Corinth went to war with the Slavs, exterminated them, and allowed the original inhabitants to claim their own lands. They regained control of the city of Patras and the peninsula was re-settled with Greeks.[142] Many Slavs were transported to Asia Minor, and many Asian, Sicilian and Calabrian Greeks were resettled in the Peloponnese. The entire peninsula was formed into the new thema of Peloponnesos, with its capital at Corinth. There was also continuity of the Peloponnesian Greek population.[143] With re-Hellenization, the Slavs likely became a minority among the Greeks, although the historian J.V.A. Fine considers it is unlikely that a large number of people could have easily been transplanted into Greece in the 9th century; this suggests that many Greeks had remained in the territory and continued to speak Greek throughout the period of Slavic occupation.[144] By the end of the 9th century, the Peloponnese was culturally and administratively Greek again,[145] with the exception of a few small Slavic tribes in the mountains such as the Melingoi and Ezeritai.

According to Byzantine sources, the Mani Peninsula in southern Laconian remained pagan until well into the 10th century. In his De administrando imperio, Emperor Constantine Porphyrogennetos also claims that the Maniots retained autonomy during the Slavic invasion, and that they descend from the ancient Greeks. Doric-speaking populations survive today in Tsakonia. During its Middle Ages, the political and cultural center of Laconia shifted to the nearby settlement of Mystras.

Sparta of the Late Middle Ages
On their arrival in the Morea, the Frankish Crusaders found a fortified city named Lacedaemonia (Sparta) occupying part of the site of ancient Sparta, and this continued to exist,[146] though greatly depopulated, even after the Prince of Achaea William II Villehardouin had in 1249 founded the fortress and city of Mystras, on a spur of Taygetus (some 3 miles northwest of Sparta).

This passed shortly afterwards into the hands of the Byzantines and became the centre of the Despotate of the Morea, until the Ottoman Turks under Mehmed II captured it in 1460. In 1687 it came into the possession of the Venetians, from whom it was wrested again in 1715 by the Turks. Thus for nearly six centuries it was Mystras and not Sparta which formed the center and focus of Laconian history.[5]

In 1777, following the Orlov events, some inhabitants of Sparta bearing the name "Karagiannakos" (Greek: Καραγιαννάκος) migrated to Koldere, near Magnesia (ad Sipylum).[147]

The Mani Peninsula region of Laconia retained some measure of autonomy during the Ottoman period, and played a significant role in the Greek War of Independence.

Modern Sparta
Main article: Sparta (modern)
Until modern times, the site of ancient Sparta was occupied by a small town of a few thousand people who lived amongst the ruins, in the shadow of Mystras, a more important medieval Greek settlement nearby. The Palaiologos family (the last Byzantine Greek imperial dynasty) also lived in Mystras. In 1834, after the Greek War of Independence, King Otto of Greece decreed that the town was to be expanded into a city.

Notable Spartans
Agis IV
Chilonis (daughter of Leotychidas)
Chilonis (wife of Cleombrotus II)
Cleomenes I
Cleomenes III
Helen
Leonidas I
Gorgo, Queen of Sparta
Lycurgus
Menelaus
Nabis
Arachidamia
Hydna
Cynisca
See also
List of Kings of Sparta
Spartan army
Notes
 Especially the Diamastigosis at the Sanctuary of Artemis Orthia, Limnai outside Sparta. There an amphitheatre was built in the 3rd century CE to observe the ritual whipping of Spartan youths.[131][132]
References
 "Spartans, a new history", Nigel Kennell, 2010, p. 1
 Diodorus Siculus 15
 Cartledge 2002, p. 28
 Herodotus 1.56.3
 Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, Sparta
 Sparta and Laconia - A regional history 1300 to 362 BC 2nd Edition, Paul Cartledge, p. 65
 Chadwick, J, Who were the Dorians, La Parola del Pasato: 31, pp. 103–117
 W G Forrest, A History of Sparta p. 25
 W G Forrest, A History of Sparta pp. 26–30
 W G Forrest, A History of Sparta p. 31
 Ehrenberg 2004, p. 36
 Ehrenberg 2004, p. 33
 W G Forrest, A History of Sparta p55
 Paul Cartledge, The Spartans pp58-9
 The Spartan Army J. F. Lazenby pp. 63–67
 The Spartan Army J. F. Lazenby p. 68
 Ehrenberg 2004, p. 31
 W G Forrest, A History of Sparta p. 32
 http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+3.2.6&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 Pausanias 2.3.6
 "Spartans, a new history", Nigel Kennell, 2010, p32
 "Spartans, a new history", Nigel Kennell, 2010, p40
 "Spartans, a new history", Nigel Kennell, 2010, p. 42
 Herodotus ( 1.82),
 "Spartans, a new history", Nigel Kennell, 2010, pp. 51–2
 "A Historical Commentary on Thucydides"—David Cartwright, p. 176
 Aspects of Greek History 750-323BC. Terry Buckley p61
 W G Forrest, A History of Sparta pp. 76–77
 W G Forrest, A History of Sparta p. 79
 "Spartans, a new history", Nigel Kennell, 2010, p. 57
 "Spartans, a new history", Nigel Kennell, 2010, p. 58
 W G Forrest, A History of Sparta p. 86
 W G Forrest, A History of Sparta p. 87
 W G Forrest, A History of Sparta p. 89
 Persian Fire: The First World Empire, Battle for the West p258
 Aspects of Greek History 750-323BC. Terry Buckley pp171-173
 Aspects of Greek History 750-323BC. Terry Buckley p. 173
 Green 1998, p. 10
 Aspects of Greek History 750-323BC. Terry Buckley pp181-184
 Aspects of Greek History 750-323BC. Terry Buckley pp. 184
 Britannica ed. 2006, "Sparta"
 History of Greece, from the beginnings to the Byzantine Era. Hermann Bengston, trans Edmund Bloedow p104
 History of Greece, from the beginnings to the Byzantine Era. Hermann Bengston, trans Edmund Bloedow p105
 Aspects of Greek History 750-323BC. Terry Buckley pp189
 Aspects of Greek History 750-323BC. Terry Buckley pp. 228–9
 Aspects of Greek History 750-323BC. Terry Buckley pp230-1
 Aspects of Greek History 750–323 BC. Terry Buckley pp. 232–5
 Aspects of Greek History 750–323 BC. Terry Buckley pp236
 Aspects of Greek History 750-323BC. Terry Buckley pp. 236–7
 Paul Cartledge, The Spartans pp. 140–141
 Buckley 2010, p. 237
 Paul Cartledge, The Spartans p. 142
 Hans van Wees, Greek Warfare, Myths and Realities pp. 83–4
 Forrest 1968, pp. 106–107
 Buckley 2010, pp. 239–240
 Buckley 2010, p. 309
 Buckley 2010, pp. 307–311
 Buckley 2010, pp. 354–355
 Forrest 1968, pp. 111–112
 Forrest 1968, p. 119
 Thucydides, Peloponnesian War, 7.22–23.
 Forrest 1968, p. 120
 The relationship with the Persians is described in Kagan, Donald (2003). The Peloponnesian War. New York: Viking (The Penguin Group). pp. 468–471..
 The previous four paragraphs rely heavily on Lazenby, John Francis (2004). The Peloponnesian War: a military study. London and New York: Routledge. pp. 246–250.
 Forrest 1968, p. 121
 Powell, Anton (2006), "Why did Sparta not destroy Athens in 404, or 403 BC?", in Hodkinson, Stephen; Powell, Anton (eds.), Sparta & War, Proceedings, International Sparta Seminar, 5th: 2004: Rennes, France, Swansea: Classical Press of Wales, p. 302
 Dillon, Matthew; Garland, Lynda (2010). Ancient Greece: Social and Historical Documents from Archaic Times to the Death of Alexander the Great. Routledge Sourcebooks for the Ancient World (3rd ed.). Oxford: Routledge. p. 446.
 Bauer, S. Wise (2007). The history of the ancient world: from the earliest accounts to the fall of Rome. New York [u.a.]: Norton. p. 553.
 Buck 1998, pp. 67–80
 Buck 1998, pp. 81–88
 Thirlwall, Connop (1855). The history of Greece. Volume IV (New ed.). London: Longman, Brown, Green and Longmans. p. 214.
 Andrewes, A (1978), "Spartan Imperialism", in Garnsey, Peter; Whittaker, C R (eds.), Imperialism in the ancient world: the Cambridge University research seminar in ancient history, Cambridge Classical Studies, Cambridge [Eng.]; New York: Cambridge University Press, p. 100
 Agesilaos, P Cartledge p191
 Agesilaos, P Cartledge p358-9
 Agesilaos, P Cartledge p. 370
 Agesilaos , P Cartledge p370
 Agesilaos, P Cartledge pp. 373–4
 "Dictionary of Ancient&Medieval Warfare"—Matthew Bennett, p. 86
 "The Oxford Illustrated History of Greece and the Hellenistic World" p. 141, John Boardman, Jasper Griffin, Oswyn Murray
 Fine, The Ancient Greeks, 556–9
 Agesilaos, P Cartledge p. 374
 Agesilaos' Boiotian Campaigns and the Theban Stockade, Mark Munn, Classical Antiquity 1987 April p. 106
 Aspects of Greek History 750-323BC. Terry Buckley pp446
 Agesilaos, P Cartledge pp.376–7
 History of Greece, G Grote vol9 p. 395
 HISTORY OF GREECE, G Grote vol9 p402
 Agesilaos, P Cartledge p384-5
 Agesilaos, P Cartledge p391
 Agesilaos, P Cartledge p. 392
 Alexander the Great Failure, John D. Grainger, pp61-2
 The Spartan Army J. F. Lazenby p. 169
 Agis III
 Agis III, by E. Badian © 1967 - Jstor
 Diodorus, World History
 Diodorus, World History, 17.62.1-63.4;tr. C.B. Welles
 Alexander the Great and his time By Agnes Savill Page 44 ISBN 0-88029-591-0
 Peter Green, Alexander to Actium p. 10
 Europe: a History—Norman Davies
 Peter Green, Alexander to Actium p125
 The Wars of Alexander's Successors 323 - 281 BC: Commanders and Campaigns v. 1 p. 193, Bob Bennett, Mike Roberts
 John D Grainger, The League of the Aetolians p. 96
 The Spartan Army, J. F. Lazenby p172
 Peter Green, Alexander to Actium p. 144
 Historians History of the World, Editor: Henry Smith Williams vol 4 pp. 512–13
 W W Tarn, Antigonas Gonatas, p. 272
 Antigontas II Gontas. Janice Gabbert p 46
 Antigontas II Gontas. Janice Gabbert pp. 47–8
 John D Grainger, The League of the Aetolians p. 152
 John D Grainger, The League of the Aetolians p162
 John D Grainger, The League of the Aetolians pp. 162–4
 Peter Green, Alexander to Actium p250
 Peter Green, Alexander to Actium p. 253
 Ancient Sparta, K M T Chrimes, 1949, p. 9
 Historians History of the World, Editor: Henry Smith Williams vol 4 p523
 Peter Green, Alexander to Actium p257
 Peter Green, Alexander to Actium pp. 259–60
 Historians History of the World, Editor: Henry Smith Williams vol 4 pp. 523–4
 Alexander The Great And The Hellenistic Age: A Short History, Peter Green p87
 Alexander The Great And The Hellenistic Age: A Short History, Peter Green p88
 Alexander The Great And The Hellenistic Age: A Short History, Peter Green p89
 John D Grainger, The League of the Aetolians
 Paul Cartledge, The Spartans p234
 Paul Cartledge, The Spartans p. 235
 W G Forrest, A History of Sparta p. 149
 Paul Cartledge, The Spartan s p. 236
 "Spartans, a new history", Nigel Kennell, 2010, p. 179
 Livy xxxiv. 33–43
 Smith [1]
 Livy, 35.35
 Cartledge and Spawforth, Hellenistic and Roman Sparta:A tale of two Cities, p. 77
 Cartledge and Spawforth, Hellenistic and Roman Sparta:A tale of two Cities, p. 82
 Cicero (1918). "II.34". In Pohlenz, M. (ed.). Tusculanae Disputationes (in Latin). Leipzig: Teubner. At the Perseus Project.
 Michell, Humfrey (1964). Sparta. Cambridge University Press. p. 175.
 Ancient Sparta, K M T Chrimes, 1949, p. 52
 Ancient Sparta, K M T Chrimes, 1949, p53
 Cartledge and Spawforth, Hellenistic and Roman Sparta:A tale of two Cities, p. 87
 Cartledge and Spawforth, Hellenistic and Roman Sparta:A tale of two Cities, p. 94
 The Spartan Army J. F. Lazenby p. 204
 Spartans: A New History (Ancient Cultures) [Paperback] Nigel M. Kennell p193-4
 Spartans: A New History (Ancient Cultures) [Paperback] Nigel M. Kennell p194
 Kazhdan (1991), pp. 911, 1620
 Obolensky (1971), pp. 54–55, 75
 Fine (1983), pp. 80, 82
 Fine (1983), p. 61
 Fine (1983), p. 64
 Fine (1983), p. 79
 Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition
 H καταγωγή των Κολτεριωτών της Σμύρνης – Του Μωυσιάδη Παναγιώτη e-ptolemeos.gr (in Greek)
 This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Sparta". Encyclopædia Britannica. 25 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 609–614. (See pp. 610–613.)

Bibliography
Buck, Robert J (1998). Thrasybulus and the Athenian democracy: the life of an Athenian statesman. Historia, Heft 120. Stuttgart: F. Steiner.
Buckley, T. (2010). Aspects of Greek history 750-323 BC: a source-based approach (Second ed.). Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN 978-0-415-54977-6.
Forrest, W.G. (1968). A History of Sparta 950-192 B.C. New York; London: W.W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-00481-3.
Cartledge, Paul. Agesilaos and the Crisis of Sparta. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987.

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Ensemble cast
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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In a dramatic production, an ensemble cast is one which comprises multiple principal actors and performers who are typically assigned roughly equal amounts of screen time.[1][2]


Contents
1	Structure
1.1	Cinema
1.2	Television
2	See also
3	References
Structure
In contrast to the popular Hollywood model which gives precedence to a sole protagonist, an ensemble cast leans more towards a sense of "collectivity and community".[3]

Cinema
Ensemble casts in film were introduced as early as September 1916, with D. W. Griffith's silent epic film Intolerance, featuring four separate though parallel plots.[4] The film follows the lives of several characters over hundreds of years, across different cultures and time periods.[5] The unification of different plot lines and character arcs is a key characteristic of ensemble casting in film; whether it's a location, event, or an overarching theme that ties the film and characters together.[4]

Films that feature ensembles tend to emphasize the interconnectivity of the characters, even when the characters are strangers to one another.[6] The interconnectivity is often shown to the audience through examples of the "six degrees of separation" theory, and allows them to navigate through plot lines using cognitive mapping.[6] Examples of this method, where the six degrees of separation is evident in films with an ensemble cast, are in productions such as Babel, Love Actually and Crash, which all have strong underlying themes interwoven within the plots that unify each film.[4]

The Avengers and Justice League are two examples of ensemble casts in the superhero genre.[7] In The Avengers, there is no need for a single central protagonist in the feature as each character shares equal importance in the narrative, successfully balancing the ensemble cast.[8] Referential acting is a key factor in executing this balance, as ensemble cast members "play off each other rather than off reality".[3]

Television
Ensemble casting also became more popular in television series because it allows flexibility for writers to focus on different characters in different episodes. In addition, the departure of players is less disruptive to the premise than it would be if the star of a production with a regularly structured cast were to leave the series. The television series Friends is an archetypal example of an ensemble cast occurring in an American sitcom. Ensemble casts of 20 or more actors are common in soap operas, a genre that relies heavily on the character development of the ensemble.[9] The genre also requires continuous expansion of the cast as the series progresses, with soap operas such as Days of Our Lives and The Bold and the Beautiful staying on air for decades.[10] Science-fiction mystery drama series Lost also features an ensemble cast.

An example of a success for television in ensemble casting is the Emmy Award-winning HBO series Game of Thrones. The epic fantasy series features one of the largest ensemble casts on the small screen.[11] The series is notorious for major character deaths, resulting in constant changes within the ensemble.[12]

See also
	Film portal
All-star[1]
Polyphony (literature)
Supergroup (music)
References
 Random House: ensemble acting Linked 2013-07-17
 Steven Withrow; Alexander Danner (2007). Character design for graphic novels. Focal Press/Rotovision. p. 112. ISBN 9780240809021. Retrieved 2009-09-05.
 "Mathijs, E. (2011). Referential acting and the ensemble cast. Screen, 52(1), 89--96. Retrieved from http://screen.oxfordjournals.org/content/52/1/89.extract
 Smith, L. (2012). Ensemble film, postmodernity and moral mapping. Screening The Past, 35. Retrieved from www.screeningthepast.com/2012/12/ensemble-film-postmodernity-and-moral-mapping/
 Filmsite.org,. (2014). Intolerance (1916). Retrieved 20 June 2014, from http://www.filmsite.org/into.html
 "Silvey, V. (2009). Not Just Ensemble Films: Six Degrees, Webs, Multiplexity and the Rise of Network Narratives. FORUM: University Of Edinburgh Postgraduate Journal of Culture & The Arts, 0(08). Retrieved from http://www.forumjournal.org/article/view/621/906
 Child, B. (2012). Avengers Assemble disarms the critics. the Guardian. Retrieved 20 June 2014, from https://www.theguardian.com/film/filmblog/2012/apr/23/avengers-assemble-disarms-critics-joss-whedon
 Bean, J. (2011). Joss Whedon talks in depth about the ensemble cast of 'The Avengers' - Hypable. Hypable. Retrieved 20 June 2014, from http://www.hypable.com/2011/11/19/joss-whedon-talks-in-depth-about-the-ensemble-cast-of-the-avengers
 Ford, S. (2008). Soap operas and the history of fan discussion. Transformative Works and Cultures, 1. Retrieved from http://journal.transformativeworks.org/index.php/twc/article/view/42/50
 Jenkins, H. (2010). The Survival of Soap Opera (Part Two):The History and Legacy of Serialized Television. Henryjenkins.org. Retrieved 24 June 2014, from http://henryjenkins.org/2010/12/the_survival_of_soap_opera_par_1.html
 Campbell, S. (2014). David Cameron: 'I'm a Game of Thrones fan' - The Daily Telegraph. (London). Retrieved 17 June 2014, from https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/game-of-thrones/10888519/David-Cameron-Im-a-Game-of-Thrones-fan.html
 Abc.net.au,. (2012). The Game of Thrones: Nobody wins, everybody dies –Opinion ABC Religion & Ethics Australian Broadcasting Corporation). Retrieved 17 June 2014, from http://www.abc.net.au/religion/articles/2013/06/12/3780302.htm
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Composer
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about composers of music. For other uses, see Composer (disambiguation).

French composer Louis-Nicolas Clérambault composing at the keyboard
A composer (Latin compōnō; literally "one who puts together") is a musician who is an author of music in any form, including vocal music (for a singer or choir), instrumental music, electronic music, and music which combines multiple forms. A composer may create music in any music genre, including, for example, classical music, musical theatre, blues, folk music, jazz, and popular music. Composers often express their works in a written musical score using musical notation.

Many composers are, or were, also skilled performers of music.


Contents
1	Composers and performers
2	History
2.1	Ancient Greece
2.2	Middle Ages
2.3	Renaissance
2.4	Baroque
2.5	Classicism
2.6	Romanticism
2.7	20th- and 21st-century music
3	Role of women
4	Clustering
5	Training
5.1	Undergraduate
5.2	Masters
5.3	Doctoral
5.4	Other routes
6	Employment
7	See also
8	References
9	External links
Composers and performers
Musical notation serves as a set of directions for a performer, but there is a whole continuum of possibilities concerning how much the performer determines the final form of the rendered work in performance.

Even in a conventional Western piece of instrumental music, in which all of the melodies, chords, and basslines are written out in musical notation, the performer has a degree of latitude to add artistic interpretation to the work, by such means as by varying his or her articulation and phrasing, choosing how long to make fermatas (held notes) or pauses, and — in the case of bowed string instruments, woodwinds or brass instruments — deciding whether to use expressive effects such as vibrato or portamento. For a singer or instrumental performer, the process of deciding how to perform music that has been previously composed and notated is termed "interpretation". Different performers' interpretations of the same work of music can vary widely, in terms of the tempos that are chosen and the playing or singing style or phrasing of the melodies. Composers and songwriters who present their own music are interpreting, just as much as those who perform the music of others. The standard body of choices and techniques present at a given time and a given place is referred to as performance practice, whereas interpretation is generally used to mean the individual choices of a performer.[citation needed]

Although a musical composition often has a single author, this is not always the case. A work of music can have multiple composers, which often occurs in popular music when a band collaborates to write a song, or in musical theatre, where the songs may be written by one person, the orchestration of the accompaniment parts and writing of the overture is done by an orchestrator, and the words may be written by a third person.

A piece of music can also be composed with words, images, or, in the 20th and 21st century, computer programs that explain or notate how the singer or musician should create musical sounds. Examples of this range from wind chimes jingling in a breeze, to avant-garde music from the 20th century that uses graphic notation, to text compositions such as Aus den sieben Tagen, to computer programs that select sounds for musical pieces. Music that makes heavy use of randomness and chance is called aleatoric music, and is associated with contemporary composers active in the 20th century, such as John Cage, Morton Feldman, and Witold Lutosławski.

The nature and means of individual variation of the music is varied, depending on the musical culture in the country and time period it was written. For instance, music composed in the Baroque era, particularly in slow tempos, often was written in bare outline, with the expectation that the performer would add improvised ornaments to the melody line during a performance. Such freedom generally diminished in later eras, correlating with the increased use by composers of more detailed scoring in the form of dynamics, articulation et cetera; composers becoming uniformly more explicit in how they wished their music to be interpreted, although how strictly and minutely these are dictated varies from one composer to another. Because of this trend of composers becoming increasingly specific and detailed in their instructions to the performer, a culture eventually developed whereby faithfulness to the composer's written intention came to be highly valued (see, for example, Urtext edition). This musical culture is almost certainly related to the high esteem (bordering on veneration) in which the leading classical composers are often held by performers.

The historically informed performance movement has revived to some extent the possibility of the performer elaborating in a serious way the music as given in the score, particularly for Baroque music and music from the early Classical period. The movement might be considered a way of creating greater faithfulness to the original in works composed at a time that expected performers to improvise. In genres other than classical music, the performer generally has more freedom; thus for instance when a performer of Western popular music creates a "cover" of an earlier song, there is little expectation of exact rendition of the original; nor is exact faithfulness necessarily highly valued (with the possible exception of "note-for-note" transcriptions of famous guitar solos).

In Western art music, the composer typically orchestrates his or her own compositions, but in musical theatre and in pop music, songwriters may hire an arranger to do the orchestration. In some cases, a pop songwriter may not use notation at all, and instead compose the song in his or her mind and then play or record it from memory. In jazz and popular music, notable recordings by influential performers are given the weight that written scores play in classical music. The study of composition has traditionally been dominated by examination of methods and practice of Western classical music, but the definition of composition is broad enough the creation of popular and traditional music songs and instrumental pieces and to include spontaneously improvised works like those of free jazz performers and African percussionists such as Ewe drummers.

History
The level of distinction between composers and other musicians varies, which affects issues such as copyright[specify] and the deference given to individual interpretations of a particular piece of music.[citation needed] In the development of European classical music, the function of composing music initially did not have much greater importance than that of performing it.[citation needed] The preservation of individual compositions did not receive enormous attention and musicians generally had no qualms about modifying compositions for performance. In as much as the role of the composer in western art music has seen continued solidification, in alternative idioms (i.e. jazz, experimental music) it has in some ways become increasingly complex or vague. For instance, in certain contexts the line between composer and performer, sound designer, arranger, producer, and other roles, can be quite blurred.


Ancient Greek marble stele, the so-called Seikilos epitaph, with poetry and musical notation engraved on the stone
The term "composer" is often used to refer to composers of instrumental music, such as those found in classical, jazz or other forms of art and traditional music. In popular and folk music, the composer is usually called a songwriter, since the music generally takes the form of a song. Since the mid-20th century, the term has expanded to accommodate creators of electroacoustic music, in which composers directly create sonic material in any of the various electronic media, such as reel-to-reel tape and electronic effects units, which may be presented to an audience by replaying a tape or other sound recording, or by having live instrumentalists and singers perform with prerecorded material. This is distinct from a 19th-century conception of instrumental composition, where the work was represented solely by a musical score to be interpreted by performers.

Ancient Greece
Music was an important part of social and cultural life in Ancient Greece. We know that composers wrote notated music during the Ancient Greek era because scholars have found the Seikilos epitaph. The epitaph, written sometime between 200 BC and 100 AD,[1] is the oldest surviving example of a complete musical composition, including musical notation, in the world. The song, the melody of which is recorded, alongside its lyrics, in the ancient Greek musical notation, was found engraved on a tombstone, a stele, near Aydın, Turkey (not far from Ephesus). It is a Hellenistic Ionic song in either the Phrygian octave species or Iastian tonos.

Middle Ages
Léonin or Pérotin
Breves dies hominis


Musical notation from a Catholic Missal, c. 1310–1320
During the Medieval music era (476 to 1400), composers wrote monophonic (single melodic line) chanting into Roman Catholic Church services. Western Music then started becoming more of an art form with the advances in music notation. The only European Medieval repertory that survives from before about 800 is the monophonic liturgical plainsong of the Roman Catholic Church, the central tradition of which was called Gregorian chant. Alongside these traditions of sacred and church music there existed a vibrant tradition of secular song (non-religious songs). Examples of composers from this period are Léonin, Pérotin and Guillaume de Machaut.

Renaissance
T.L. de Victoria
Amicus meus


Allegory of Music by Filippino Lippi
During the Renaissance music era (c. 1400 to 1600) composers tended to focus more on writing songs about secular (non-religious) themes, such as courtly love. Around 1450, the printing press was invented, which made printed sheet music much less expensive and easier to mass-produce (prior to the invention of the printing press, all notated music was hand-copied). The increased availability of sheet music helped to spread composers' musical styles more quickly and across a larger area. By the middle of the 15th century, composers were writing richly polyphonic sacred music, in which different melody lines were interwoven simultaneously. Prominent composers from this era include Guillaume Dufay, Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, Thomas Morley, and Orlande de Lassus. As musical activity shifted from the church to the aristocratic courts, kings, queens and princes competed for the finest composers. Many leading important composers came from the Netherlands, Belgium, and northern France. They are called the Franco-Flemish composers. They held important positions throughout Europe, especially in Italy. Other countries with vibrant musical activity included Germany, England, and Spain.

Baroque
J.S. Bach
Toccata and Fugue

During the Baroque era of music (1600 to 1750), composers expanded the range and complexity of the music they were writing. The Baroque music era began when composers looked back to Ancient Greek music for the inspiration to create operas (dramatic vocal music accompanied by orchestra). Another key style of music composers used during this era was contrapuntal music. This style of writing required composers to have an advanced knowledge of music theory, as contrapuntal music involves multiple, independent melody lines played by instruments or sung by voices. There were strict counterpoint rules that composers had to learn. German Baroque composers wrote for small ensembles including strings, brass, and woodwinds, as well as choirs and for keyboard instruments such as pipe organ, harpsichord, and clavichord. During this period, composers developed several major music forms that lasted into later periods when they were expanded and evolved further, including the fugue, the invention, the sonata, and the concerto.[2] The late Baroque style was polyphonically complex and richly ornamented. Some of the best-known composers from the Baroque era include Claudio Monteverdi, Heinrich Schütz, Jean-Baptiste Lully, Dieterich Buxtehude, Arcangelo Corelli, Henry Purcell, François Couperin, Antonio Vivaldi, Georg Philipp Telemann, Jean-Philippe Rameau, Johann Sebastian Bach and George Frideric Handel.

Classicism
W.A. Mozart
Symphony 40 g-moll

Composers of music of the Classical Period (1750 to 1830) looked to the art and philosophy of Ancient Greece and Rome, to the ideals of balance, proportion and disciplined expression. Apart from when writing religious works, composers moved towards writing in a lighter, clearer and considerably simpler texture, using instrumental melodies that tended to be almost voicelike and singable. New genres were developed by composers. The main style was homophony,[3] where a prominent melody and a subordinate chordal accompaniment part are clearly distinct.

Composers focused on instrumental music. It was dominated by further development of musical forms initially defined in the Baroque period: the sonata, the concerto, and the symphony. Others main kinds were the trio, string quartet, serenade and divertimento. The sonata was the most important and developed form. Although Baroque composers also wrote sonatas, the Classical style of sonata is completely distinct. All of the main instrumental forms of the Classical era, from string quartets to symphonies and concertos, were based on the structure of the sonata.

One of the most important changes made in the Classical period was the development of public concerts. The aristocracy still played a significant role in the sponsorship of concerts and compositions, but it was now possible for composers to survive without being permanent employees of queens or princes. The increasing popularity of classical music led to a growth in the number and types of orchestras. The expansion of orchestral concerts necessitated the building of large public performance spaces. Symphonic music including symphonies, musical accompaniment to ballet and mixed vocal/instrumental genres such as opera and oratorio became more popular.

The best known composers of Classicism are Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven and Franz Schubert. Beethoven and Schubert are also considered to be composers in the later part of the Classical era, as it began to move towards Romanticism.

Romanticism
R. Wagner
Die Walküre

During the Romantic music era (c. 1810 to 1900), composers turned the rigid styles and forms of the Classical era into more passionate, dramatic expressive pieces. Composers attempted to increase emotional expression and power of their music, and they tried to describe deeper truths or human feelings. With symphonic tone poems, composers tried to tell stories and evoke images or landscapes using instrumental music. Some composers promoted nationalistic pride with patriotic orchestral music inspired by folk music. For composers, the emotional and expressive qualities of music came to take precedence over following textbooks and tradition. Romantic composers grew in idiosyncrasy, and went further in the syncretism of exploring different art-forms in a musical context, (such as literature), history (historical figures and legends), or nature itself. Romantic love or longing was a prevalent theme in many works composed during this period. In some cases the formal structures from the classical period continued to be used (e.g., the sonata form used in string quartets and symphonies), but these forms were expanded and altered. In many cases, composers explored new approaches to use for existing genres, forms, and functions. Also, composers created new forms that were deemed better suited to the new subject matter. Opera and ballet continued to develop.[4]

In the years after 1800, the music developed by Ludwig van Beethoven and Franz Schubert introduced a more dramatic, expressive style. In Beethoven's case, short motifs, developed organically, came to replace melody as the most significant compositional unit (an example is the distinctive four note figure used in his Fifth Symphony). Later Romantic composers such as Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, Antonín Dvořák, and Gustav Mahler used more unusual chords and more dissonance to create dramatic tension. They generated complex and often much longer musical works. During the late Romantic period, composers explored dramatic chromatic alterations of tonality, such as extended chords and altered chords, which created new sound "colours". Composers in the Romantic era increased the size of the orchestra by adding players and using new instruments, creating a more powerful sound. Some Wagnerian orchestras included multiple harps, massive string sections and Wagner tubas.

20th- and 21st-century music

Jazz group consisting of double bassist Reggie Workman, tenor saxophone player Pharoah Sanders, and drummer Idris Muhammad, performing in 1978
In the 19th century, one of the key ways that new compositions became known to the public was by the sales of sheet music, which amateur music lovers would perform at home on their piano or other instruments. With 20th-century music, there was a vast increase in music listening as the radio gained popularity and phonographs were used to replay and distribute music. In the 20th century, contemporary classical composers were also influenced by the African-American improvisation-based jazz music. The jazz influence can be seen in Third Stream music and in the compositions of Leonard Bernstein. The focus of art music was characterized by exploration of new rhythms, styles, and sounds. Igor Stravinsky, Arnold Schoenberg, and John Cage were all influential composers in 20th-century art music. Cage wrote compositions for traditional classical instruments and unusual sound-producing devices not normally thought of as instruments, such as radios. The invention of sound recording and the ability to edit music on tape gave rise to new subgenre of classical music, including the acousmatic[5] and Musique concrète schools of electronic composition, in which composers made pieces using reel-to-reel tape recorders and electronic equipment.

Role of women
Main articles: Women in music § Composers, and List of female composers by birth date

Nineteenth-century composer and pianist Clara Schumann
In 1993, American musicologist Marcia Citron asked "[w]hy is music composed by women so marginal to the standard 'classical' repertoire?"[6] Citron "examines the practices and attitudes that have led to the exclusion of women composers from the received 'canon' of performed musical works." She argues that in the 1800s, women composers typically wrote art songs for performance in small recitals rather than symphonies intended for performance with an orchestra in a large hall, with the latter works being seen as the most important genre for composers; since women composers did not write many symphonies, they were deemed to be not notable as composers.[6]

According to Abbey Philips, "women musicians have had a very difficult time breaking through and getting the credit they deserve."[7] During the Medieval eras, most of the art music was created for liturgical (religious) purposes and due to the views about the roles of women that were held by religious leaders, few women composed this type of music, with the nun Hildegard von Bingen being among the exceptions. Most university textbooks on the history of music discuss almost exclusively the role of male composers. As well, very few works by women composers are part of the standard repertoire of classical music. In Concise Oxford History of Music, Clara Schumann is the only woman composer that is mentioned.[7] Philips states that "[d]uring the 20th century the women who were composing/playing gained far less attention than their male counterparts."[7]

Women today are being taken more seriously in the realm of concert music, though the statistics of recognition, prizes, employment, and overall opportunities are still biased toward men.[8]

Clustering
Famous composers have a tendency to cluster in certain cities throughout history. Based on over 12,000 prominent composers listed in Grove Music Online and using word count measurement techniques, the most important cities for classical music can be quantitatively identified.[9]

Paris has been the main hub for classical music in all periods. It was ranked fifth in the 15th and 16th centuries but first in the 17th to 20th centuries inclusive. London was the second most meaningful city: eighth in the 15th century, seventh in the 16th, fifth in the 17th, second in the 18th and 19th centuries, and fourth in the 20th century. Rome topped the rankings in the 15th century, dropped to second in the 16th and 17th centuries, eighth in the 18th century, ninth in the 19th century but back at sixth in the 20th century. Berlin appears in the top ten ranking only in the 18th century, and was ranked third most important city in both the 19th and 20th centuries. New York City entered the rankings in the 19th century (at fifth place) and stood at second rank in the 20th century. The patterns are very similar for a sample of 522 top composers.[10]

Training
Professional classical composers often have a background in performing classical music during their childhood and teens, either as a singer in a choir, as a player in a youth orchestra, or as a performer on a solo instrument (e.g., piano, pipe organ, or violin). Teens aspiring to be composers can continue their postsecondary studies in a variety of formal training settings, including colleges, conservatories, and universities. Conservatories, which are the standard musical training system in France and in Quebec (Canada) provide lessons and amateur orchestral and choral singing experience for composition students. Universities offer a range of composition programs, including bachelor's degrees, Master of Music degrees, and Doctor of Musical Arts degrees. As well, there are a variety of other training programs such as classical summer camps and festivals, which give students the opportunity to get coaching from composers.

Undergraduate
Bachelor's degrees in composition (referred to as B.Mus. or B.M) are four-year programs that include individual composition lessons, amateur orchestra/choral experience, and a sequence of courses in music history, music theory, and liberal arts courses (e.g., English literature), which give the student a more well-rounded education. Usually, composition students must complete significant pieces or songs before graduating. Not all composers hold a B.Mus. in composition; composers may also hold a B.Mus. in music performance or music theory.

Masters
Master of music degrees (M.mus.) in composition consist of private lessons with a composition professor, ensemble experience, and graduate courses in music history and music theory, along with one or two concerts featuring the composition student's pieces. A Master's degree in music (referred to as an M.Mus. or M.M.) is often a required minimum credential for people who wish to teach composition at a university or conservatory. A composer with an M.Mus. could be an adjunct professor or instructor at a university, but it would be difficult in the 2010s to obtain a tenure track professor position with this degree.

Doctoral
To become a tenure track professor, many universities require a doctoral degree. In composition, the key doctoral degree is the Doctor of Musical Arts, rather than the PhD; the PhD is awarded in music, but typically for subjects such as musicology and music theory.

Doctor of Musical Arts (referred to as D.M.A., DMA, D.Mus.A. or A.Mus.D) degrees in composition provide an opportunity for advanced study at the highest artistic and pedagogical level, requiring usually an additional 54+ credit hours beyond a master's degree (which is about 30+ credits beyond a bachelor's degree). For this reason, admission is highly selective. Students must submit examples of their compositions. If available, some schools will also accept video or audio recordings of performances of the student's pieces. Examinations in music history, music theory, ear training/dictation, and an entrance examination are required.

Students must prepare significant compositions under the guidance of faculty composition professors. Some schools require DMA composition students to present concerts of their works, which are typically performed by singers or musicians from the school. The completion of advanced coursework and a minimum B average are other typical requirements of a D.M.A program. During a D.M.A. program, a composition student may get experience teaching undergraduate music students.

Other routes
Some classical composers did not complete composition programs, but focused their studies on performance of voice or an instrument or on music theory, and developed their compositional skills over the course of a career in another musical occupation.

Employment
During the Middle Ages, most composers worked for the Catholic church and composed music for religious services such as plainchant melodies. During the Renaissance music era, composers typically worked for aristocratic employers. While aristocrats typically required composers to produce a significant amount of religious music, such as Masses, composers also penned many non-religious songs on the topic of courtly love: the respectful, reverential love of a great woman from afar. Courtly love songs were very popular during the Renaissance era. During the Baroque music era, many composers were employed by aristocrats or as church employees. During the Classical period, composers began to organize more public concerts for profit, which helped composers to be less dependent on aristocratic or church jobs. This trend continued in the Romantic music era in the 19th century. In the 20th century, composers began to seek employment as professors in universities and conservatories. In the 20th century, composers also earned money from the sales of their works, such sheet music publications of their songs or pieces or as sound recordings of their works.

See also
Lists of composers
Kapellmeister
References
 Landels, John G. (1999). Music in Ancient Greece and Rome. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 9780415167765.
 Thornburgh, Elaine; Logan, Jack. "Baroque Music". trumpet.sdsu.edu. Archived from the original on 2015-09-05. Retrieved 2015-10-27.
 Blume, Friedrich (1970). Classic and Romantic Music: A Comprehensive Survey. New York: W.W. Norton & Company.
 Savage, Roger. "Incidental music". Grove Music Online. Retrieved 2012-08-13.
 Schaeffer, Pierre (1966). Traité des objets musicaux. Paris: Éditions du Seuil.
 Citron, Marcia J. (1993). "Gender and the Musical Canon". CUP Archive.
 Philips, Abbey (September 1, 2011). "The history of women and gender roles in music". Rvanews.com. Retrieved 2016-01-20.
 "WQXR – New York's Classical Music Radio Station". WQXR. Retrieved 2016-03-23.
 Borowiecki, Karol; O'Hagan, John (2012). "Historical Patterns Based on Automatically Extracted Data: The Case of Classical Composers". Historical Social Research (Section 'Cliometrics'). Association Française de Cliométrie. 37 (2): 298–314. Retrieved 2012-10-13.
 O'Hagan, John; Borowiecki, Karol (July 8, 2010). "Birth Location, Migration, and Clustering of Important Composers". Historical Methods. 43 (2): 81–90. doi:10.1080/01615441003729945.
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Pink Floyd
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Pink Floyd
A black-and-white photo of five men standing in front of a brick wall.
Pink Floyd in January 1968, from the only known photoshoot of all five members. Clockwise from bottom: Gilmour, Mason, Barrett, Waters and Wright.
Background information
Origin	London, England
Genres	
Rockpsychedelicprogressive rock
Years active	
1965–199520052012–2014
Labels	
EMI ColumbiaTowerHarvestCapitolColumbiaSony MusicEMIParlophone
Website	pinkfloyd.com
Past members	
Nick Mason
Roger Waters
Richard Wright
Syd Barrett
David Gilmour
Pink Floyd were an English rock band formed in London in 1965. Gaining a following as a psychedelic band, they were distinguished for their extended compositions, sonic experimentation, philosophical lyrics and elaborate live shows, and became a leading band of the progressive rock genre. They are one of the most commercially successful and influential groups in popular music history.

Pink Floyd were founded by students Syd Barrett (guitar and lead vocals), Nick Mason (drums), Roger Waters (bass and vocals), and Richard Wright (keyboards and vocals). Under Barrett's leadership, they released two charting singles and a successful debut album, The Piper at the Gates of Dawn (1967). Guitarist and vocalist David Gilmour joined in December 1967; Barrett left in April 1968 due to deteriorating mental health. Waters became their primary lyricist and thematic leader, devising the concepts behind the albums The Dark Side of the Moon (1973), Wish You Were Here (1975), Animals (1977), The Wall (1979) and The Final Cut (1983). The band also composed several film scores.

Following personal tensions, Wright left Pink Floyd in 1979, followed by Waters in 1985. Gilmour and Mason continued as Pink Floyd, joined later by Wright. The three produced two more albums—A Momentary Lapse of Reason (1987) and The Division Bell (1994)—and continued to tour before quietly disbanding in 1995. In 2005, all the members except Barrett reunited for a one-off performance at the global awareness event Live 8. Barrett died in 2006, and Wright in 2008. The last Pink Floyd studio album, The Endless River (2014), was recorded without Waters and based almost entirely on unreleased material from The Division Bell recording sessions.

Pink Floyd are considered one of the first groups of British psychedelia and are credited with inspiring the development of genres such as progressive rock and ambient music. They had four albums that topped US or UK record charts; the songs "See Emily Play" (1967) and "Another Brick in the Wall" (1982) were the group's only top 10 singles in either territory. The band were inducted into the US Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1996 and the UK Music Hall of Fame in 2005. By 2013, they had sold more than 250 million records worldwide, with The Dark Side of the Moon and The Wall two of the best-selling albums of all time.


Contents
1	History
1.1	1963–1967: Early years
1.1.1	Formation
1.1.2	Signing with EMI
1.1.3	The Piper at the Gates of Dawn
1.2	1967–1978: Transition and international success
1.2.1	1967: Replacement of Barrett by Gilmour
1.2.2	A Saucerful of Secrets (1968)
1.2.3	Ummagumma (1969), Atom Heart Mother (1970), and Meddle (1971)
1.2.4	The Dark Side of the Moon (1973)
1.2.5	Wish You Were Here (1975)
1.2.6	Animals (1977)
1.3	1978–1985: Waters-led era
1.3.1	The Wall (1979)
1.3.2	The Final Cut (1982)
1.3.3	"A spent force", Waters' departure and legal battles
1.4	1985–1994: Gilmour-led era
1.4.1	A Momentary Lapse of Reason (1987)
1.4.2	The Division Bell (1994)
1.5	2005–2016: Reunion, deaths, and The Endless River
1.5.1	Live 8 reunion
1.5.2	Deaths of Barrett and Wright
1.5.3	Further performances and rereleases
1.5.4	The Endless River (2014) and Nick Mason's Saucerful of Secrets
2	Musicianship
2.1	Genres
2.2	Gilmour's guitar work
2.3	Sonic experimentation
2.4	Film scores
2.5	Live performances
3	Lyrical themes
3.1	Disillusionment, absence, and non-being
3.2	Exploitation and oppression
3.3	Alienation, war, and insanity
4	Legacy
5	Members
6	Discography
7	Tours
8	Notes
9	References
10	Sources
11	Further reading
12	External links
History
1963–1967: Early years
Formation
Roger Waters and Nick Mason met while studying architecture at the London Polytechnic at Regent Street.[1] They first played music together in a group formed by Keith Noble and Clive Metcalfe with Noble's sister Sheilagh. Richard Wright, a fellow architecture student,[nb 1] joined later that year, and the group became a sextet, Sigma 6. Waters played lead guitar, Mason drums, and Wright rhythm guitar (since there was rarely an available keyboard).[3] The band performed at private functions and rehearsed in a tearoom in the basement of the Regent Street Polytechnic. They performed songs by the Searchers and material written by their manager and songwriter, fellow student Ken Chapman.[4]

In September 1963, Waters and Mason moved into a flat at 39 Stanhope Gardens near Crouch End in London, owned by Mike Leonard, a part-time tutor at the nearby Hornsey College of Art and the Regent Street Polytechnic.[5][nb 2] Mason moved out after the 1964 academic year, and guitarist Bob Klose moved in during September 1964, prompting Waters' switch to bass.[6][nb 3] Sigma 6 went through several names, including the Meggadeaths, the Abdabs and the Screaming Abdabs, Leonard's Lodgers, and the Spectrum Five, before settling on the Tea Set.[7][nb 4] In 1964, as Metcalfe and Noble left to form their own band, guitarist Syd Barrett joined Klose and Waters at Stanhope Gardens.[11] Barrett, two years younger, had moved to London in 1962 to study at the Camberwell College of Arts.[12] Waters and Barrett were childhood friends; Waters had often visited Barrett and watched him play guitar at Barrett's mother's house.[13] Mason said about Barrett: "In a period when everyone was being cool in a very adolescent, self-conscious way, Syd was unfashionably outgoing; my enduring memory of our first encounter is the fact that he bothered to come up and introduce himself to me."[14]

Noble and Metcalfe left the Tea Set in late 1963, and Klose introduced the band to singer Chris Dennis, a technician with the Royal Air Force (RAF).[15] In December 1964, they secured their first recording time, at a studio in West Hampstead, through one of Wright's friends, who let them use some down time free. Wright, who was taking a break from his studies, did not participate in the session.[16][nb 5] When the RAF assigned Dennis a post in Bahrain in early 1965, Barrett became the band's frontman.[17][nb 6] Later that year, they became the resident band at the Countdown Club near Kensington High Street in London, where from late night until early morning they played three sets of 90 minutes each. During this period, spurred by the group's need to extend their sets to minimise song repetition, the band realised that "songs could be extended with lengthy solos", wrote Mason.[18] After pressure from his parents and advice from his college tutors, Klose quit the band in mid-1965 and Barrett took over lead guitar.[19] The group first referred to themselves as the Pink Floyd Sound in late 1965. Barrett created the name on the spur of the moment when he discovered that another band, also called the Tea Set, were to perform at one of their gigs.[20] The name is derived from the given names of two blues musicians whose Piedmont blues records Barrett had in his collection, Pink Anderson and Floyd Council.[21]

By 1966, the group's repertoire consisted mainly of rhythm and blues songs and they had begun to receive paid bookings, including a performance at the Marquee Club in March 1966, where Peter Jenner, a lecturer at the London School of Economics, noticed them. Jenner was impressed by the sonic effects Barrett and Wright created, and with his business partner and friend Andrew King became their manager.[22] The pair had little experience in the music industry and used King's inheritance to set up Blackhill Enterprises, purchasing about £1,000 (equivalent to £18,300 in 2018[23]) worth of new instruments and equipment for the band.[nb 7] It was around this time that Jenner suggested they drop the "Sound" part of their band name, thus becoming the Pink Floyd.[25] Under Jenner and King's guidance, the group became part of London's underground music scene, playing at venues including All Saints Hall and the Marquee.[26] While performing at the Countdown Club, the band had experimented with long instrumental excursions, and they began to expand them with rudimentary but effective light shows, projected by coloured slides and domestic lights.[27] Jenner and King's social connections helped gain the band prominent coverage in the Financial Times and an article in the Sunday Times which stated: "At the launching of the new magazine IT the other night a pop group called the Pink Floyd played throbbing music while a series of bizarre coloured shapes flashed on a huge screen behind them ... apparently very psychedelic."[28]

In 1966, the band strengthened their business relationship with Blackhill Enterprises, becoming equal partners with Jenner and King and the band members each holding a one-sixth share.[25] By late 1966, their set included fewer R&B standards and more Barrett originals, many of which would be included on their first album.[29] While they had significantly increased the frequency of their performances, the band were still not widely accepted. Following a performance at a Catholic youth club, the owner refused to pay them, claiming that their performance was not music.[30] When their management filed suit in a small claims court against the owner of the youth organisation, a local magistrate upheld the owner's decision. The band was much better received at the UFO Club in London, where they began to build a fan base.[31] Barrett's performances were enthusiastic, "leaping around ... madness ... improvisation ... [inspired] to get past his limitations and into areas that were ... very interesting. Which none of the others could do", wrote biographer Nicholas Schaffner.[32]

Signing with EMI
In 1967, Pink Floyd began to attract the attention of the music industry.[33][nb 8] While in negotiations with record companies, IT co-founder and UFO club manager Joe Boyd and Pink Floyd's booking agent Bryan Morrison arranged and funded a recording session at Sound Techniques in West Hampstead. Three days later, Pink Floyd signed with EMI, receiving a £5,000 advance (equivalent to £89,100 in 2018[23]). EMI released the band's first single, "Arnold Layne", with the B-side "Candy and a Currant Bun", on 10 March 1967 on its Columbia label.[35][nb 9] Both tracks were recorded on 29 January 1967.[36][nb 10] "Arnold Layne"'s references to cross-dressing led to a ban by several radio stations; however, creative manipulation by the retailers who supplied sales figures to the music business meant that the single peaked in the UK at number 20.[38]

EMI-Columbia released Pink Floyd's second single, "See Emily Play", on 16 June 1967. It fared slightly better than "Arnold Layne", peaking at number 6 in the UK.[39] The band performed on the BBC's Look of the Week, where Waters and Barrett, erudite and engaging, faced tough questioning from Hans Keller.[40] They appeared on the BBC's Top of the Pops, a popular programme that controversially required artists to mime their singing and playing.[41] Though Pink Floyd returned for two more performances, by the third, Barrett had begun to unravel, and it was around this time that the band first noticed significant changes in his behaviour.[42] By early 1967, he was regularly using LSD, and Mason described him as "completely distanced from everything going on".[43]

The Piper at the Gates of Dawn
Main article: The Piper at the Gates of Dawn
Morrison and EMI producer Norman Smith negotiated Pink Floyd's first recording contract, and as part of the deal, the band agreed to record their first album at EMI Studios in London.[44][nb 11] Mason recalled that the sessions were trouble-free. Smith disagreed, stating that Barrett was unresponsive to his suggestions and constructive criticism.[46] EMI-Columbia released The Piper at the Gates of Dawn in August 1967. The album peaked at number 6, spending 14 weeks on the UK charts.[47] One month later, it was released under the Tower Records label.[48] Pink Floyd continued to draw large crowds at the UFO Club; however, Barrett's mental breakdown was by then causing serious concern. The group initially hoped that his erratic behaviour would be a passing phase, but some were less optimistic, including Jenner and his assistant, June Child, who commented: "I found [Barrett] in the dressing room and he was so ... gone. Roger Waters and I got him on his feet, [and] we got him out to the stage ... The band started to play and Syd just stood there. He had his guitar around his neck and his arms just hanging down".[49]

Forced to cancel Pink Floyd's appearance at the prestigious National Jazz and Blues Festival, as well as several other shows, King informed the music press that Barrett was suffering from nervous exhaustion.[50] Waters arranged a meeting with psychiatrist R. D. Laing, and though Waters personally drove Barrett to the appointment, Barrett refused to come out of the car.[51] A stay in Formentera with Sam Hutt, a doctor well established in the underground music scene, led to no visible improvement. The band followed a few concert dates in Europe during September with their first tour of the US in October.[52][nb 12] As the US tour went on, Barrett's condition grew steadily worse.[54] During appearances on the Dick Clark and Pat Boone shows in November, Barrett confounded his hosts by not responding to questions and staring off into space. He refused to move his lips when it came time to mime "See Emily Play" on Boone's show. After these embarrassing episodes, King ended their US visit and immediately sent them home to London.[55][nb 13] Soon after their return, they supported Jimi Hendrix during a tour of England; however, Barrett's depression worsened as the tour continued, reaching a crisis point in December, when the band responded by adding a new member to their line-up.[57][nb 14]

1967–1978: Transition and international success
1967: Replacement of Barrett by Gilmour
In December 1967, the group added guitarist David Gilmour as the fifth member of Pink Floyd.[60][nb 15] Gilmour already knew Barrett, having studied with him at Cambridge Tech in the early 1960s.[13] The two had performed at lunchtimes together with guitars and harmonicas, and later hitch-hiked and busked their way around the south of France.[62] In 1965, while a member of Joker's Wild, Gilmour had watched the Tea Set.[63] Morrison's assistant, Steve O'Rourke, set Gilmour up in a room at O'Rourke's house with a salary of £30 per week (equivalent to £500 in 2018[23]), and in January 1968, Blackhill Enterprises announced Gilmour as the band's newest member; the second guitarist and its fifth member, the band intending to continue with Barrett as a nonperforming songwriter.[64] Jenner commented: "The idea was that Dave would ... cover for [Barrett's] eccentricities and when that got to be not workable, Syd was just going to write. Just to try to keep him involved".[65][nb 16] In an expression of his frustration, Barrett, who was expected to write additional hit singles to follow up "Arnold Layne" and "See Emily Play", instead introduced "Have You Got It Yet?" to the band, intentionally changing the structure on each performance so as to make the song impossible to follow and learn.[60] In a January 1968 photo-shoot of the five-man Pink Floyd, the photographs show Barrett looking detached from the others, staring into the distance.[67]

Working with Barrett eventually proved too difficult, and matters came to a conclusion in January while en route to a performance in Southampton when a band member asked if they should collect Barrett. According to Gilmour, the answer was "Nah, let's not bother", signalling the end of Barrett's tenure with Pink Floyd.[68][nb 17] Waters later admitted, "He was our friend, but most of the time we now wanted to strangle him".[70] In early March 1968, Pink Floyd met with business partners Jenner and King to discuss the band's future; Barrett agreed to leave.[71]

Jenner and King believed Barrett to be the creative genius of the band, and decided to represent him and end their relationship with Pink Floyd.[72] Morrison then sold his business to NEMS Enterprises, and O'Rourke became the band's personal manager.[73] Blackhill announced Barrett's departure on 6 April 1968.[74][nb 18] After Barrett's departure, the burden of lyrical composition and creative direction fell mostly on Waters.[76] Initially, Gilmour mimed to Barrett's voice on the group's European TV appearances; however, while playing on the university circuit, they avoided Barrett songs in favour of Waters and Wright material such as "It Would Be So Nice" and "Careful with That Axe, Eugene".[77]

A Saucerful of Secrets (1968)
Main article: A Saucerful of Secrets
A psychedelic album cover with mostly greenish blues tones.
The psychedelic artwork for A Saucerful of Secrets was the first of many Pink Floyd covers designed by Hipgnosis
In 1968, Pink Floyd returned to Abbey Road Studios to record their second album, A Saucerful of Secrets. The album included Barrett's final contribution to their discography, "Jugband Blues". Waters began to develop his own songwriting, contributing "Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun", "Let There Be More Light" and "Corporal Clegg". Wright composed "See-Saw" and "Remember a Day". Norman Smith encouraged them to self-produce their music, and they recorded demos of new material at their houses. With Smith's instruction at Abbey Road, they learned how to use the recording studio to realise their artistic vision. However, Smith remained unconvinced by their music, and when Mason struggled to perform his drum part on "Remember a Day", Smith stepped in as his replacement.[78] Wright recalled Smith's attitude about the sessions, "Norman gave up on the second album ... he was forever saying things like, 'You can't do twenty minutes of this ridiculous noise'".[79] As neither Waters nor Mason could read music, to illustrate the structure of the album's title track, they invented their own system of notation. Gilmour later described their method as looking "like an architectural diagram".[80]

Released in June 1968, the album featured a psychedelic cover designed by Storm Thorgerson and Aubrey Powell of Hipgnosis. The first of several Pink Floyd album covers designed by Hipgnosis, it was the second time that EMI permitted one of their groups to contract designers for an album jacket.[81] The release peaked at number 9, spending 11 weeks on the UK chart.[47] Record Mirror gave the album an overall favourable review, but urged listeners to "forget it as background music to a party".[80] John Peel described a live performance of the title track as "like a religious experience", while NME described the song as "long and boring ... [with] little to warrant its monotonous direction".[79][nb 19] On the day after the album's UK release, Pink Floyd performed at the first ever free concert in Hyde Park.[83] In July 1968, they returned to the US for a second visit. Accompanied by the Soft Machine and the Who, it marked Pink Floyd's first significant tour.[84] In December of that year, they released "Point Me at the Sky"; no more successful than the two singles they had released since "See Emily Play", it would be the band's last until their 1973 release, "Money".[85]

Ummagumma (1969), Atom Heart Mother (1970), and Meddle (1971)
Main articles: Ummagumma, Atom Heart Mother, and Meddle
A monochrome image of Waters playing bass guitar. He has shoulder-length hair, black attire, and is standing in front of a microphone.
Waters performing with Pink Floyd at Leeds University in 1970
Ummagumma represented a departure from their previous work. Released as a double-LP on EMI's Harvest label, the first two sides contained live performances recorded at Manchester College of Commerce and Mothers, a club in Birmingham. The second LP contained a single experimental contribution from each band member.[86] Ummagumma was released in November 1969 and received positive reviews.[87] The album peaked at number 5, spending 21 weeks on the UK chart.[47]

In October 1970, Pink Floyd released Atom Heart Mother.[88][nb 20] An early version premièred in France in January, but disagreements over the mix prompted the hiring of Ron Geesin to work out the sound problems. Geesin worked to improve the score, but with little creative input from the band, production was troublesome. Geesin eventually completed the project with the aid of John Alldis, who was the director of the choir hired to perform on the record. Smith earned an executive producer credit, and the album marked his final official contribution to the band's discography. Gilmour said it was "A neat way of saying that he didn't ... do anything".[90] Waters was critical of Atom Heart Mother, claiming that he would prefer if it were "thrown into the dustbin and never listened to by anyone ever again".[91] Gilmour was equally dismissive of the album and once described it as "a load of rubbish", stating: "I think we were scraping the barrel a bit at that period".[91] Pink Floyd's first number 1 album, Atom Heart Mother was hugely successful in Britain, spending 18 weeks on the UK chart.[47] It premièred at the Bath Festival on 27 June 1970.[92]

Pink Floyd toured extensively across America and Europe in 1970.[93][nb 21] In 1971, Pink Floyd took second place in a reader's poll, in Melody Maker, and for the first time were making a profit. Mason and Wright became fathers and bought homes in London while Gilmour, still single, moved to a 19th-century farm in Essex. Waters installed a home recording studio at his house in Islington in a converted toolshed at the back of his garden.[94] In January 1971, upon their return from touring Atom Heart Mother, Pink Floyd began working on new material.[95] Lacking a central theme, they attempted several unproductive experiments; engineer John Leckie described the sessions as often beginning in the afternoon and ending early the next morning, "during which time nothing would get [accomplished]. There was no record company contact whatsoever, except when their label manager would show up now and again with a couple of bottles of wine and a couple of joints".[96] The band spent long periods working on basic sounds, or a guitar riff. They also spent several days at Air Studios, attempting to create music using a variety of household objects, a project which would be revisited between The Dark Side of the Moon and Wish You Were Here.[97]

Released in October 1971, "Meddle not only confirms lead guitarist David Gilmour's emergence as a real shaping force with the group, it states forcefully and accurately that the group is well into the growth track again", wrote Jean-Charles Costa of Rolling Stone.[98][nb 22][nb 23] NME called Meddle "an exceptionally good album", singling out "Echoes" as the "Zenith which the Floyd have been striving for".[102] However, Melody Maker's Michael Watts found it underwhelming, calling the album "a soundtrack to a non-existent movie", and shrugging off Pink Floyd as "so much sound and fury, signifying nothing".[103] Meddle is a transitional album between the Barrett-influenced group of the late 1960s and the emerging Pink Floyd.[104] The LP peaked at number 3, spending 82 weeks on the UK chart.[47]

The Dark Side of the Moon (1973)
Main article: The Dark Side of the Moon
Original album artwork featuring an almost black cover with a triangular prism in the middle. A ray of white light enters the prism from the left and is refracted into colours as it comes out the right side.
The iconic artwork for The Dark Side of the Moon was designed by Hipgnosis and George Hardie.
Pink Floyd recorded The Dark Side of the Moon between May 1972 and January 1973 with EMI staff engineer Alan Parsons at Abbey Road. The title is an allusion to lunacy rather than astronomy.[105] The band had composed and refined the material while touring the UK, Japan, North America and Europe.[106] Producer Chris Thomas assisted Parsons.[107] Hipgnosis designed the packaging, which included George Hardie's iconic refracting prism design on the cover.[108] Thorgerson's cover features a beam of white light, representing unity, passing through a prism, which represents society. The refracted beam of coloured light symbolises unity diffracted, leaving an absence of unity.[109] Waters is the sole author of the lyrics.[110]


Pink Floyd performing on their early 1973 US tour, shortly before the release of The Dark Side of the Moon
Released in March 1973, the LP became an instant chart success in the UK and throughout Western Europe, earning an enthusiastic response from critics.[111] Each member of Pink Floyd except Wright boycotted the press release of The Dark Side of the Moon because a quadraphonic mix had not yet been completed, and they felt presenting the album through a poor-quality stereo PA system was insufficient.[112] Melody Maker's Roy Hollingworth described side one as "utterly confused ... [and] difficult to follow", but praised side two, writing: "The songs, the sounds ... [and] the rhythms were solid ... [the] saxophone hit the air, the band rocked and rolled".[113] Rolling Stone's Loyd Grossman described it as "a fine album with a textural and conceptual richness that not only invites, but demands involvement."[114]

Throughout March 1973, The Dark Side of the Moon featured as part of Pink Floyd's US tour.[115] The album is one of the most commercially successful rock albums of all time; a US number 1, it remained on the Billboard chart for more than fourteen years, selling more than 45 million copies worldwide.[116] In Britain, the album peaked at number 2, spending 364 weeks on the UK chart.[47] Dark Side is the world's third best-selling album, and the twenty-first best-selling album of all time in the US.[117] [118] The success of the album brought enormous wealth to the members of Pink Floyd. Waters and Wright bought large country houses while Mason became a collector of expensive cars.[119] Disenchanted with their US record company, Capitol Records, Pink Floyd and O'Rourke negotiated a new contract with Columbia Records, who gave them a reported advance of $1,000,000 (US$5,080,297 in 2018 dollars)[120]. In Europe, they continued to be represented by Harvest Records.[121]

Wish You Were Here (1975)
Main article: Wish You Were Here (Pink Floyd album)
After a tour of the UK performing Dark Side, Pink Floyd returned to the studio in January 1975 and began work on their ninth studio album, Wish You Were Here.[122] Parsons declined an offer to continue working with them, becoming successful in his own right with the Alan Parsons Project, and so the band turned to Brian Humphries.[123] Initially, they found it difficult to compose new material; the success of The Dark Side of the Moon had left Pink Floyd physically and emotionally drained. Wright later described these early sessions as "falling within a difficult period" and Waters found them "tortuous".[124] Gilmour was more interested in improving the band's existing material. Mason's failing marriage left him in a general malaise and with a sense of apathy, both of which interfered with his drumming.[124]

Despite the lack of creative direction, Waters began to visualise a new concept after several weeks.[124] During 1974, Pink Floyd had sketched out three original compositions and had performed them at a series of concerts in Europe.[125] These compositions became the starting point for a new album whose opening four-note guitar phrase, composed purely by chance by Gilmour, reminded Waters of Barrett.[126] The songs provided a fitting summary of the rise and fall of their former bandmate.[127] Waters commented: "Because I wanted to get as close as possible to what I felt ... [that] indefinable, inevitable melancholy about the disappearance of Syd."[128]

While Pink Floyd were working on the album, Barrett made an impromptu visit to the studio. Thorgerson recalled that he "sat round and talked for a bit, but he wasn't really there".[129] He had changed significantly in appearance, so much so that the band did not initially recognise him. Waters was reportedly deeply upset by the experience.[130][nb 24] Most of Wish You Were Here premiered on 5 July 1975, at an open-air music festival at Knebworth. Released in September, it reached number one in both the UK and the US.[132]

Animals (1977)
Main article: Animals (Pink Floyd album)
Colour picture of a power station factory with four tall white chimneys. The image was taken on a sunny day. The sky is blue and the building is brown.
Battersea Power Station is featured in the cover image for Animals
In 1975, Pink Floyd bought a three-storey group of church halls at 35 Britannia Row in Islington and began converting the building into a recording studio and storage space.[133] In 1976, they recorded their tenth album, Animals, in their newly finished 24-track studio.[134] The concept of Animals originated with Waters, loosely based on George Orwell's political fable, Animal Farm. The album's lyrics described different classes of society as dogs, pigs, and sheep.[135][nb 25] Hipgnosis received credit for the packaging of Animals; however, Waters designed the final concept, choosing an image of the ageing Battersea Power Station, over which they superimposed an image of a pig.[137][nb 26]

The division of royalties was a source of conflict between band members, who earned royalties on a per-song basis. Although Gilmour was largely responsible for "Dogs", which took up almost the entire first side of the album, he received less than Waters, who contributed the much shorter two-part "Pigs on the Wing".[140] Wright commented: "It was partly my fault because I didn't push my material ... but Dave did have something to offer, and only managed to get a couple of things on there."[141] Mason recalled: "Roger was in full flow with the ideas, but he was really keeping Dave down, and frustrating him deliberately."[141][nb 27] Gilmour, distracted by the birth of his first child, contributed little else toward the album. Similarly, neither Mason nor Wright contributed much toward Animals; Wright had marital problems, and his relationship with Waters was also suffering.[143] Animals is the first Pink Floyd album that does not include a writing credit for Wright, who commented: "Animals ... wasn't a fun record to make ... this was when Roger really started to believe that he was the sole writer for the band ... that it was only because of him that [we] were still going ... when he started to develop his ego trips, the person he would have his conflicts with would be me."[143]

Released in January 1977, the album peaked on the UK chart at number two, and the US chart at number three.[144] NME described the album as "one of the most extreme, relentless, harrowing and downright iconoclastic hunks of music", and Melody Maker's Karl Dallas called it "[an] uncomfortable taste of reality in a medium that has become in recent years, increasingly soporific".[145]

Pink Floyd performed much of the album's material during their "In the Flesh" tour. It was the band's first experience playing large stadiums, whose size caused unease in the band.[146] Waters began arriving at each venue alone, departing immediately after the performance. On one occasion, Wright flew back to England, threatening to leave the band.[147] At the Montreal Olympic Stadium, a group of noisy and enthusiastic fans in the front row of the audience irritated Waters so much that he spat at one of them.[148][nb 28] The end of the tour marked a low point for Gilmour, who felt that the band achieved the success they had sought, with nothing left for them to accomplish.[149]

1978–1985: Waters-led era
The Wall (1979)
Main articles: The Wall and Pink Floyd – The Wall
In July 1978, amid a financial crisis caused by negligent investments, Waters presented two ideas for Pink Floyd's next album. The first was a 90-minute demo with the working title Bricks in the Wall; the other later became Waters' first solo album, The Pros and Cons of Hitch Hiking. Although both Mason and Gilmour were initially cautious, they chose the former.[150][nb 29] Bob Ezrin co-produced and wrote a forty-page script for the new album.[152] Ezrin based the story on the central figure of Pink—a gestalt character inspired by Waters' childhood experiences, the most notable of which was the death of his father in World War II. This first metaphorical brick led to more problems; Pink would become drug-addled and depressed by the music industry, eventually transforming into a megalomaniac, a development inspired partly by the decline of Syd Barrett. At the end of the album, the increasingly fascist audience would watch as Pink tore down the wall, once again becoming a regular and caring person.[153][nb 30]

During the recording of The Wall, Waters, Gilmour and Mason became dissatisfied with Wright's lack of contribution, and fired him.[156] Gilmour said that Wright "hadn't contributed anything of any value whatsoever to the album—he did very, very little" and this was why he "got the boot".[157] According to Mason, "Rick's contribution was to turn up and sit in on the sessions without doing anything, just 'being a producer'."[158] Waters commented: "[Wright] was not prepared to cooperate in making the record ... [and] it was agreed by everybody ... either [he] can have a long battle or [he] can agree to ... finish making the album, keep [his] full share ... but at the end of it [he would] leave quietly. Rick agreed."[159][nb 31]

The album was supported by "Another Brick in the Wall (Part II)", which topped the charts in the US and the UK; it was Pink Floyd's first single since "Money".[162] The Wall was released on 30 November 1979 and topped the Billboard chart in the US for fifteen weeks, reaching number three in the UK.[163] The Wall ranks number three on the RIAA's list of the all-time Top 100 albums, with 23 million certified units sold in the US.[164] The cover, with a stark brick wall and band name, was the first Pink Floyd album cover since The Piper at the Gates of Dawn not designed by Hipgnosis.[165]

Gerald Scarfe produced a series of animations for the subsequent live shows, The Wall Tour. He also commissioned the construction of large inflatable puppets representing characters from the storyline including the "Mother", the "Ex-wife" and the "Schoolmaster". Pink Floyd used the puppets during their performances of the album.[166] Relationships within the band were at an all-time low; their four Winnebagos parked in a circle, the doors facing away from the centre. Waters used his own vehicle to arrive at the venue and stayed in different hotels from the rest of the band. Wright returned as a paid musician and was the only one of the four to profit from the venture, which lost about $600,000 (US$1,653,514 in 2018 dollars[120]).[167]

The Wall concept also spawned a film, the original idea for which was to be a combination of live concert footage and animated scenes. However, the concert footage proved impractical to film. Alan Parker agreed to direct and took a different approach. The animated sequences would remain, but scenes would be acted by professional actors with no dialogue. Waters was screen-tested, but quickly discarded and they asked Bob Geldof to accept the role of Pink. Geldof was initially dismissive, condemning The Wall's storyline as "bollocks".[168] Eventually won over by the prospect of participation in a significant film and receiving a large payment for his work, Geldof agreed.[169][nb 32] Screened at the Cannes Film Festival in May 1982, Pink Floyd – The Wall premièred in the UK in July 1982.[170][nb 33]

The Final Cut (1982)
Main article: The Final Cut (album)
In 1982, Waters suggested a new musical project with the working title Spare Bricks, originally conceived as the soundtrack album for Pink Floyd – The Wall. With the onset of the Falklands War, Waters changed direction and began writing new material. He saw Margaret Thatcher's response to the invasion of the Falklands as jingoistic and unnecessary, and dedicated the album to his late father. Immediately arguments arose between Waters and Gilmour, who felt that the album should include all new material, rather than recycle songs passed over for The Wall. Waters felt that Gilmour had contributed little to the band's lyrical repertoire.[171] Michael Kamen, a contributor to the orchestral arrangements of The Wall, mediated between the two, also performing the role traditionally occupied by the then-absent Wright.[172][nb 34] The tension within the band grew. Waters and Gilmour worked independently; however, Gilmour began to feel the strain, sometimes barely maintaining his composure. After a final confrontation, Gilmour's name disappeared from the credit list, reflecting what Waters felt was his lack of songwriting contributions.[174][nb 35]

Though Mason's musical contributions were minimal, he stayed busy recording sound effects for an experimental Holophonic system to be used on the album. With marital problems of his own, he remained a distant figure. Pink Floyd did not use Thorgerson for the cover design, Waters choosing to design the cover himself.[175][nb 36] Released in March 1983, The Final Cut went straight to number one in the UK and number six in the US.[176] Waters wrote all the lyrics, as well as all the music on the album.[177] Gilmour did not have any material ready for the album and asked Waters to delay the recording until he could write some songs, but Waters refused.[178] Gilmour later commented: "I'm certainly guilty at times of being lazy ... but he wasn't right about wanting to put some duff tracks on The Final Cut."[178][nb 37] Rolling Stone magazine gave the album five stars, with Kurt Loder calling it "a superlative achievement ... art rock's crowning masterpiece".[180][nb 38] Loder viewed The Final Cut as "essentially a Roger Waters solo album".[182]

"A spent force", Waters' departure and legal battles
Gilmour recorded his second solo album, About Face, in 1984, and used it to express his feelings about a variety of topics, from the murder of John Lennon to his relationship with Waters. He later stated that he used the album to distance himself from Pink Floyd. Soon afterwards, Waters began touring his first solo album, The Pros and Cons of Hitch Hiking.[183] Wright formed Zee with Dave Harris and recorded Identity, which went almost unnoticed upon its release.[184][nb 39] Mason released his second solo album, Profiles, in August 1985.[185]

Following the release of The Pros and Cons of Hitch Hiking, Waters publicly insisted that Pink Floyd would not reunite. He contacted O'Rourke to discuss settling future royalty payments. O'Rourke felt obliged to inform Mason and Gilmour, which angered Waters, who wanted to dismiss him as the band's manager. He terminated his management contract with O'Rourke and employed Peter Rudge to manage his affairs.[185][nb 40] Waters wrote to EMI and Columbia announcing he had left the band, and asked them to release him from his contractual obligations. Gilmour believed that Waters left to hasten the demise of Pink Floyd. Waters later stated that, by not making new albums, Pink Floyd would be in breach of contract—which would suggest that royalty payments would be suspended—and that the other band members had forced him from the group by threatening to sue him. He then went to the High Court in an effort to dissolve the band and prevent the use of the Pink Floyd name, declaring Pink Floyd "a spent force creatively."[187] When his lawyers discovered that the partnership had never been formally confirmed, Waters returned to the High Court in an attempt to obtain a veto over further use of the band's name. Gilmour responded by issuing a carefully worded press release affirming that Pink Floyd would continue to exist. He later told The Sunday Times: "Roger is a dog in the manger and I'm going to fight him."[188] In 2013, Waters said he had failed to appreciate that the Pink Floyd name had commercial value independent of the band members, and was wrong to have attempted to stop the others using it.[189]

1985–1994: Gilmour-led era
A Momentary Lapse of Reason (1987)
Main article: A Momentary Lapse of Reason
A colour image Gilmour's houseboat and studio the Astoria, anchored in a river. The background is green forest and it is a bright sunny day.
The Astoria recording studio
In 1986, Gilmour began recruiting musicians for what would become Pink Floyd's first album without Waters, A Momentary Lapse of Reason.[190][nb 41] There were legal obstacles to Wright's re-admittance to the band, but after a meeting in Hampstead, Pink Floyd invited Wright to participate in the coming sessions.[191] Gilmour later stated that Wright's presence "would make us stronger legally and musically", and Pink Floyd employed him as a musician with weekly earnings of $11,000.[192] Recording sessions began on Gilmour's houseboat, the Astoria, moored along the River Thames.[193][nb 42] Gilmour worked with several songwriters, including Eric Stewart and Roger McGough, eventually choosing Anthony Moore to write the album's lyrics.[195] Gilmour would later admit that the project was difficult without Waters' creative direction.[196] Mason, concerned that he was too out-of-practice to perform on the album, made use of session musicians to complete many of the drum parts. He instead busied himself with the album's sound effects.[197][nb 43]

A Momentary Lapse of Reason was released in September 1987. Storm Thorgerson, whose creative input was absent from The Wall and The Final Cut, designed the album cover.[200] To drive home that Waters had left the band, they included a group photograph on the inside cover, the first since Meddle.[201][nb 44] The album went straight to number three in the UK and the US.[203] Waters commented: "I think it's facile, but a quite clever forgery ... The songs are poor in general ... [and] Gilmour's lyrics are third-rate."[204] Although Gilmour initially viewed the album as a return to the band's top form, Wright disagreed, stating: "Roger's criticisms are fair. It's not a band album at all."[205] Q Magazine described the album as essentially a Gilmour solo album.[206]

Waters attempted to subvert the Momentary Lapse of Reason tour by contacting promoters in the US and threatening to sue them if they used the Pink Floyd name. Gilmour and Mason funded the start-up costs with Mason using his Ferrari 250 GTO as collateral.[207] Early rehearsals for the upcoming tour were chaotic, with Mason and Wright entirely out of practice. Realising he had taken on too much work, Gilmour asked Ezrin to assist them. As Pink Floyd toured North America, Waters' Radio K.A.O.S. tour was on occasion, close by, though in much smaller venues than those hosting his former band's performances. Waters issued a writ for copyright fees for the band's use of the flying pig. Pink Floyd responded by attaching a large set of male genitalia to its underside to distinguish it from Waters' design.[208] The parties reached a legal agreement on 23 December; Mason and Gilmour retained the right to use the Pink Floyd name in perpetuity and Waters received exclusive rights to, among other things, The Wall.[209]

The Division Bell (1994)
Main article: The Division Bell
A colour photograph of two large silver-grey iron sculptures of opposing silhouetted faces. The sculptures are standing in a brown wheat field with a blue sky behind them.
The album artwork for The Division Bell, designed by Storm Thorgerson, was intended to represent the absence of Barrett and Waters from the band.
For several years Pink Floyd had busied themselves with personal pursuits, such as filming and competing in the La Carrera Panamericana and recording a soundtrack for a film based on the event.[210][nb 45] In January 1993, they began working on a new album, returning to Britannia Row Studios, where for several days, Gilmour, Mason and Wright worked collaboratively, improvising material. After about two weeks, the band had enough ideas to begin creating songs. Ezrin returned to co-produce the album and production moved to the Astoria, where from February to May 1993, they worked on about 25 ideas.[212]

Contractually, Wright was not a member of the band, and said "It came close to a point where I wasn't going to do the album."[213] However, he earned five co-writing credits on the album, his first on a Pink Floyd album since 1975's Wish You Were Here.[213] Another songwriter credited on the album was Gilmour's future wife, Polly Samson. She helped him write several tracks, including, "High Hopes", a collaborative arrangement which, though initially tense, "pulled the whole album together," according to Ezrin.[214] They hired Michael Kamen to arrange the album's orchestral parts; Dick Parry and Chris Thomas also returned.[215] Writer Douglas Adams provided the album title and Thorgerson the cover artwork.[216][nb 46] Thorgerson drew inspiration for the album cover from the Moai monoliths of Easter Island; two opposing faces forming an implied third face about which he commented: "the absent face—the ghost of Pink Floyd's past, Syd and Roger".[218] Eager to avoid competing against other album releases, as had happened with A Momentary Lapse, Pink Floyd set a deadline of April 1994, at which point they would resume touring.[219] The album reached number 1 in the UK and the US.[118] It spent 51 weeks on the UK chart.[47]

Pink Floyd spent more than two weeks rehearsing in a hangar at Norton Air Force Base in San Bernardino, California, before opening on 29 March 1994, in Miami, with an almost identical road crew to that used for their Momentary Lapse of Reason tour.[220] They played a variety of Pink Floyd favourites, and later changed their setlist to include The Dark Side of the Moon in its entirety.[221][nb 47] The tour, Pink Floyd's last, ended on 29 October 1994.[222][nb 48]

2005–2016: Reunion, deaths, and The Endless River
Live 8 reunion
A concert stage lit by purple lighting. Four men are performing on the stage as a crowd stands in front of it. Behind the men are video screens displaying images of vinyl records.
Waters (right) rejoined his former bandmates at Live 8.
On 2 July 2005, Waters, Gilmour, Mason and Wright performed together as Pink Floyd for the first time in more than 24 years, at the Live 8 concert in Hyde Park, London.[224] The reunion was arranged by Live 8 organiser Bob Geldof; after Gilmour declined the offer, Geldof asked Mason, who contacted Waters. About two weeks later, Waters called Gilmour, their first conversation in two years, and the next day Gilmour agreed. In a statement to the press, the band stressed the unimportance of their problems in the context of the Live 8 event.[112]

They planned their setlist at the Connaught Hotel in London, followed by three days of rehearsals at Black Island Studios.[112] The sessions were problematic, with disagreements over the style and pace of the songs they were practising; the running order was decided on the eve of the event.[225] At the beginning of their performance of "Wish You Were Here", Waters told the audience: "[It is] quite emotional, standing up here with these three guys after all these years, standing to be counted with the rest of you ... we're doing this for everyone who's not here, and particularly of course for Syd."[226] At the end, Gilmour thanked the audience and started to walk off the stage. Waters called him back, and the band shared a group hug. Images of the hug were a favourite among Sunday newspapers after Live 8.[227][nb 49] Waters said of their almost 20 years of animosity: "I don't think any of us came out of the years from 1985 with any credit ... It was a bad, negative time, and I regret my part in that negativity."[229]

Though Pink Floyd turned down a contract worth £136 million for a final tour, Waters did not rule out more performances, suggesting it ought to be for a charity event only.[227] However, Gilmour told the Associated Press that a reunion would not happen: "The [Live 8] rehearsals convinced me [that] it wasn't something I wanted to be doing a lot of ... There have been all sorts of farewell moments in people's lives and careers which they have then rescinded, but I think I can fairly categorically say that there won't be a tour or an album again that I take part in. It isn't to do with animosity or anything like that. It's just ... I've been there, I've done it."[230] In February 2006, Gilmour was interviewed for the Italian newspaper La Repubblica, which declared: "Patience for fans in mourning. The news is official. Pink Floyd the brand is dissolved, finished, definitely deceased."[231] Asked about the future of Pink Floyd, Gilmour responded: "It's over ... I've had enough. I'm 60 years old ... it is much more comfortable to work on my own."[231] Gilmour and Waters repeatedly said that they had no plans to reunite.[232][nb 50]

Deaths of Barrett and Wright
Barrett died on 7 July 2006, at his home in Cambridge, aged 60.[234] His funeral was held at Cambridge Crematorium on 18 July 2006; no Pink Floyd members attended. Wright said: "The band are very naturally upset and sad to hear of Syd Barrett's death. Syd was the guiding light of the early band line-up and leaves a legacy which continues to inspire."[234] Although Barrett had faded into obscurity over the decades, the national press praised him for his contributions to music.[235][nb 51] On 10 May 2007, Waters, Gilmour, Wright and Mason performed at the Barrett tribute concert "Madcap's Last Laugh" at the Barbican Centre in London. Gilmour, Wright and Mason performed the Barrett compositions "Bike" and "Arnold Layne", and Waters performed a solo version of his song "Flickering Flame".[237]

Wright died of an undisclosed form of cancer on 15 September 2008, aged 65.[238] His former bandmates paid tributes to his life and work; Gilmour said: "In the welter of arguments about who or what was Pink Floyd, Rick's enormous input was frequently forgotten. He was gentle, unassuming and private but his soulful voice and playing were vital, magical components of our most recognised Pink Floyd sound."[239] A week after Wright's death, Gilmour performed "Remember a Day" from A Saucerful of Secrets, written and originally sung by Wright, in tribute to him.[240] Keyboardist Keith Emerson released a statement praising Wright as the "backbone" of Pink Floyd.[241]

Further performances and rereleases
On 10 July 2010, Waters and Gilmour performed together at a charity event for the Hoping Foundation. The event, which raised money for Palestinian children, took place at Kiddington Hall in Oxfordshire, England, with an audience of approximately 200.[242] In return for Waters' appearance at the event, Gilmour performed "Comfortably Numb" at Waters' performance of The Wall[243][nb 52] at the London O2 Arena on 12 May 2011, singing the choruses and playing the two guitar solos. Mason also joined, playing tambourine for "Outside the Wall" with Gilmour on mandolin.[245][nb 53]

On 26 September 2011, Pink Floyd and EMI launched an exhaustive re-release campaign under the title Why Pink Floyd ... ?, reissuing the back catalogue in newly remastered versions, including "Experience" and "Immersion" multi-disc multi-format editions. The albums were remastered by James Guthrie, co-producer of The Wall.[247] In November 2015, Pink Floyd released a limited edition EP, 1965: Their First Recordings, comprising six songs recorded prior to The Piper at the Gates of Dawn.[248]

The Endless River (2014) and Nick Mason's Saucerful of Secrets
Main article: The Endless River

Advertising for The Endless River in South Bank, London
In 2012, Gilmour and Mason decided to revisit recordings made with Wright, mainly during the Division Bell sessions, to create a new Pink Floyd album. They recruited session musicians to help record new parts and "generally harness studio technology".[249] Waters was not involved.[250] Mason described the album as a tribute to Wright: "I think this record is a good way of recognising a lot of what he does and how his playing was at the heart of the Pink Floyd sound. Listening back to the sessions, it really brought home to me what a special player he was."[251]

The Endless River was released on 7 November 2014, the second Pink Floyd album distributed by Parlophone following the release of the 20th anniversary editions of The Division Bell earlier in 2014.[252] Though it received mixed reviews,[253] it became the most pre-ordered album of all time on Amazon UK[254] and debuted at number one in several countries.[255][256] The vinyl edition was the fastest-selling UK vinyl release of 2014 and the fastest-selling since 1997.[257] Gilmour stated that The Endless River is Pink Floyd's last album, saying: "I think we have successfully commandeered the best of what there is ... It's a shame, but this is the end."[258] There was no supporting tour, as Gilmour felt it was impossible without Wright.[259][260] In August 2015, Gilmour reiterated that Pink Floyd were "done" and that to reunite without Wright "would just be wrong".[261]

In November 2016, Pink Floyd released a boxset, The Early Years 1965–1972, comprising outtakes, live recordings, remixes, and films from their early career.[262] This will be followed in November 2019 by The Later Years 1987–2019, compiling Pink Floyd's work after Waters' departure, including an "updated and remixed" version of A Momentary Lapse of Reason (1987) with more contributions by Wright and Mason, and an expanded reissue of the 1988 live album, Delicate Sound of Thunder with tracks omitted from the original release.[263]

In 2018, Mason formed a new band, Nick Mason's Saucerful of Secrets, to perform Pink Floyd's early material. The band includes Gary Kemp of Spandau Ballet and longtime Pink Floyd collaborator Guy Pratt.[264] They toured Europe in September 2018[265] and North America in 2019.[266] Waters joined the band at the Beacon Theatre in New York City to perform vocals for "Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun".[267]

Musicianship
Genres
Considered one of the UK's first psychedelic music groups, Pink Floyd began their career at the vanguard of London's underground music scene. Some categorise their work from that era as space rock.[268][nb 54] According to Rolling Stone: "By 1967, they had developed an unmistakably psychedelic sound, performing long, loud suitelike compositions that touched on hard rock, blues, country, folk, and electronic music."[271] Released in 1968, the song "Careful with That Axe, Eugene" helped galvanise their reputation as an art rock group.[77] Other genres attributed to the band are experimental rock,[272] acid rock,[273] proto-prog,[274] experimental pop (while under Barrett).[275] and psychedelic pop,[276] By the late 1960s, the press had begun to label their music progressive rock.[277] O'Neill Surber comments on the music of Pink Floyd:

Rarely will you find Floyd dishing up catchy hooks, tunes short enough for air-play, or predictable three-chord blues progressions; and never will you find them spending much time on the usual pop album of romance, partying, or self-hype. Their sonic universe is expansive, intense, and challenging ... Where most other bands neatly fit the songs to the music, the two forming a sort of autonomous and seamless whole complete with memorable hooks, Pink Floyd tends to set lyrics within a broader soundscape that often seems to have a life of its own ... Pink Floyd employs extended, stand-alone instrumentals which are never mere vehicles for showing off virtuoso but are planned and integral parts of the performance.[278]

In 1968, Wright commented on Pink Floyd's sonic reputation: "It's hard to see why we were cast as the first British psychedelic group. We never saw ourselves that way ... we realised that we were, after all, only playing for fun ... tied to no particular form of music, we could do whatever we wanted ... the emphasis ... [is] firmly on spontaneity and improvisation."[279] Waters gave a less enthusiastic assessment of the band's early sound: "There wasn't anything 'grand' about it. We were laughable. We were useless. We couldn't play at all so we had to do something stupid and 'experimental' ... Syd was a genius, but I wouldn't want to go back to playing "Interstellar Overdrive" for hours and hours."[280] Unconstrained by conventional pop formats, Pink Floyd were innovators of progressive rock during the 1970s and ambient music during the 1980s.[281]

Gilmour's guitar work
Main article: David Gilmour
"While Waters was Floyd's lyricist and conceptualist, Gilmour was the band's voice and its main instrumental focus."[282]
—Alan di Perna, in Guitar World, May 2006
Rolling Stone critic Alan di Perna praised Gilmour's guitar work as an integral to Pink Floyd's sound,[282] and described him as the most important guitarist of the 1970s, "the missing link between Hendrix and Van Halen".[283] Rolling Stone named him the 14th greatest guitarist of all time.[283] In 2006, Gilmour said of his technique: "[My] fingers make a distinctive sound ... [they] aren't very fast, but I think I am instantly recognisable ... The way I play melodies is connected to things like Hank Marvin and the Shadows."[284] Gilmour's ability to use fewer notes than most to express himself without sacrificing strength or beauty drew a favourable comparison to jazz trumpeter Miles Davis.[285]

In 2006, Guitar World writer Jimmy Brown described Gilmour's guitar style as "characterised by simple, huge-sounding riffs; gutsy, well-paced solos; and rich, ambient chordal textures."[285] According to Brown, Gilmour's solos on "Money", "Time" and "Comfortably Numb" "cut through the mix like a laser beam through fog."[285] Brown described the "Time" solo as "a masterpiece of phrasing and motivic development ... Gilmour paces himself throughout and builds upon his initial idea by leaping into the upper register with gut-wrenching one-and-one-half-step 'over bends', soulful triplet arpeggios and a typically impeccable bar vibrato."[286] Brown described Gilmour's phrasing as intuitive and perhaps his best asset as a lead guitarist. Gilmour explained how he achieved his signature tone: "I usually use a fuzz box, a delay and a bright EQ setting ... [to get] singing sustain ... you need to play loud—at or near the feedback threshold. It's just so much more fun to play ... when bent notes slice right through you like a razor blade."[285]

Sonic experimentation
Throughout their career, Pink Floyd experimented with their sound. Their second single, "See Emily Play" premiered at the Queen Elizabeth Hall in London, on 12 May 1967. During the performance, the group first used an early quadraphonic device called an Azimuth Co-ordinator.[287] The device enabled the controller, usually Wright, to manipulate the band's amplified sound, combined with recorded tapes, projecting the sounds 270 degrees around a venue, achieving a sonic swirling effect.[288] In 1972, they purchased a custom-built PA which featured an upgraded four-channel, 360-degree system.[289]

Waters experimented with the EMS Synthi A and VCS 3 synthesisers on Pink Floyd pieces such as "On the Run", "Welcome to the Machine", and "In the Flesh?".[290] He used a Binson Echorec 2 delay effect on his bass-guitar track for "One of These Days".[291]

Pink Floyd used innovative sound effects and state of the art audio recording technology during the recording of The Final Cut. Mason's contributions to the album were almost entirely limited to work with the experimental Holophonic system, an audio processing technique used to simulate a three-dimensional effect. The system used a conventional stereo tape to produce an effect that seemed to move the sound around the listener's head when they were wearing headphones. The process enabled an engineer to simulate moving the sound to behind, above or beside the listener's ears.[292]

Film scores
Pink Floyd also composed several film scores, starting in 1968, with The Committee.[293] In 1969, they recorded the score for Barbet Schroeder's film More. The soundtrack proved beneficial: not only did it pay well but, along with A Saucerful of Secrets, the material they created became part of their live shows for some time thereafter.[294] While composing the soundtrack for director Michelangelo Antonioni's film Zabriskie Point, the band stayed at a luxury hotel in Rome for almost a month. Waters claimed that, without Antonioni's constant changes to the music, they would have completed the work in less than a week. Eventually he used only three of their recordings. One of the pieces turned down by Antonioni, called "The Violent Sequence", later became "Us and Them", included on 1973's The Dark Side of the Moon.[295] In 1971, the band again worked with Schroeder on the film La Vallée, for which they released a soundtrack album called Obscured by Clouds. They composed the material in about a week at the Château d'Hérouville near Paris, and upon its release, it became Pink Floyd's first album to break into the top 50 on the US Billboard chart.[296]

Live performances
Main article: Pink Floyd live performances
A monochrome image of members of the band. The photograph is taken from a distance, and is bisected horizontally by the forward edge of the stage. Each band member and his equipment is illuminated from above by bright spotlights, also visible. A long-haired man holds a guitar and sings into a microphone on the left of the image. Central, another man is seated behind a large drumkit. Two men on the right of the image hold a saxophone or a bass guitar and appear to be looking in each other's general direction. In the foreground, silhouetted, are the heads of the audience.
A live performance of The Dark Side of the Moon at Earls Court, shortly after its release in 1973: (l-r) Gilmour, Mason, Dick Parry, Waters
Regarded as pioneers of live music performance and renowned for their lavish stage shows, Pink Floyd also set high standards in sound quality, making use of innovative sound effects and quadraphonic speaker systems.[297] From their earliest days, they employed visual effects to accompany their psychedelic rock music while performing at venues such as the UFO Club in London.[31] Their slide-and-light show was one of the first in British rock, and it helped them become popular among London's underground.[271]

To celebrate the launch of the London Free School's magazine International Times in 1966, they performed in front of 2,000 people at the opening of the Roundhouse, attended by celebrities including Paul McCartney and Marianne Faithfull.[298] In mid-1966, road manager Peter Wynne-Willson joined their road crew, and updated the band's lighting rig with some innovative ideas including the use of polarisers, mirrors and stretched condoms.[299] After their record deal with EMI, Pink Floyd purchased a Ford Transit van, then considered extravagant band transportation.[300] On 29 April 1967, they headlined an all-night event called The 14 Hour Technicolour Dream at the Alexandra Palace, London. Pink Floyd arrived at the festival at around three o'clock in the morning after a long journey by van and ferry from the Netherlands, taking the stage just as the sun was beginning to rise.[301][nb 55] In July 1969, precipitated by their space-related music and lyrics, they took part in the live BBC television coverage of the Apollo 11 moon landing, performing an instrumental piece which they called "Moonhead".[303]

In November 1974, they employed for the first time the large circular screen that would become a staple of their live shows.[304] In 1977, they employed the use of a large inflatable floating pig named "Algie". Filled with helium and propane, Algie, while floating above the audience, would explode with a loud noise during the In the Flesh Tour.[305] The behaviour of the audience during the tour, as well as the large size of the venues, proved a strong influence on their concept album The Wall. The subsequent The Wall Tour featured a 40 feet (12 m) high wall, built from cardboard bricks, constructed between the band and the audience. They projected animations onto the wall, while gaps allowed the audience to view various scenes from the story. They commissioned the creation of several giant inflatables to represent characters from the story.[306] One striking feature of the tour was the performance of "Comfortably Numb". While Waters sang his opening verse, in darkness, Gilmour waited for his cue on top of the wall. When it came, bright blue and white lights would suddenly reveal him. Gilmour stood on a flightcase on castors, an insecure setup supported from behind by a technician. A large hydraulic platform supported both Gilmour and the tech.[307]

During the Division Bell Tour, an unknown person using the name Publius posted a message on an internet newsgroup inviting fans to solve a riddle supposedly concealed in the new album. White lights in front of the stage at the Pink Floyd concert in East Rutherford spelled out the words Enigma Publius. During a televised concert at Earls Court on 20 October 1994, someone projected the word "enigma" in large letters on to the backdrop of the stage. Mason later acknowledged that their record company had instigated the Publius Enigma mystery, rather than the band.[221]

Lyrical themes
Marked by Waters' philosophical lyrics, Rolling Stone described Pink Floyd as "purveyors of a distinctively dark vision".[273] Author Jere O'Neill Surber wrote: "their interests are truth and illusion, life and death, time and space, causality and chance, compassion and indifference."[308] Waters identified empathy as a central theme in the lyrics of Pink Floyd.[309] Author George Reisch described Meddle's psychedelic opus, "Echoes", as "built around the core idea of genuine communication, sympathy, and collaboration with others."[310] Despite having been labelled "the gloomiest man in rock", author Deena Weinstein described Waters as an existentialist, dismissing the unfavourable moniker as the result of misinterpretation by music critics.[311]

Disillusionment, absence, and non-being
Waters' lyrics to Wish You Were Here's "Have a Cigar" deal with a perceived lack of sincerity on the part of music industry representatives.[312] The song illustrates a dysfunctional dynamic between the band and a record label executive who congratulates the group on their current sales success, implying that they are on the same team while revealing that he erroneously believes "Pink" is the name of one of the band members.[313] According to author David Detmer, the album's lyrics deal with the "dehumanising aspects of the world of commerce", a situation the artist must endure to reach their audience.[314]

Absence as a lyrical theme is common in the music of Pink Floyd. Examples include the absence of Barrett after 1968, and that of Waters' father, who died during the Second World War. Waters' lyrics also explored unrealised political goals and unsuccessful endeavours. Their film score, Obscured by Clouds, dealt with the loss of youthful exuberance that sometimes comes with ageing.[315] Longtime Pink Floyd album cover designer, Storm Thorgerson, described the lyrics of Wish You Were Here: "The idea of presence withheld, of the ways that people pretend to be present while their minds are really elsewhere, and the devices and motivations employed psychologically by people to suppress the full force of their presence, eventually boiled down to a single theme, absence: The absence of a person, the absence of a feeling."[316][nb 56] Waters commented: "it's about none of us really being there ... [it] should have been called Wish We Were Here".[317]

O'Neill Surber explored the lyrics of Pink Floyd and declared the issue of non-being a common theme in their music.[308][nb 57] Waters invoked non-being or non-existence in The Wall, with the lyrics to "Comfortably Numb": "I caught a fleeting glimpse, out of the corner of my eye. I turned to look, but it was gone, I cannot put my finger on it now, the child is grown, the dream is gone."[315] Barrett referred to non-being in his final contribution to the band's catalogue, "Jugband Blues": "I'm most obliged to you for making it clear that I'm not here."[315]

Exploitation and oppression
Author Patrick Croskery described Animals as a unique blend of the "powerful sounds and suggestive themes" of Dark Side with The Wall's portrayal of artistic alienation.[319] He drew a parallel between the album's political themes and that of Orwell's Animal Farm.[319] Animals begins with a thought experiment, which asks: "If you didn't care what happened to me. And I didn't care for you", then develops a beast fable based on anthropomorphised characters using music to reflect the individual states of mind of each. The lyrics ultimately paint a picture of dystopia, the inevitable result of a world devoid of empathy and compassion, answering the question posed in the opening lines.[320]

The album's characters include the "Dogs", representing fervent capitalists, the "Pigs", symbolising political corruption, and the "Sheep", who represent the exploited.[321] Croskery described the "Sheep" as being in a "state of delusion created by a misleading cultural identity", a false consciousness.[322] The "Dog", in his tireless pursuit of self-interest and success, ends up depressed and alone with no one to trust, utterly lacking emotional satisfaction after a life of exploitation.[323] Waters used Mary Whitehouse as an example of a "Pig"; being someone who in his estimation, used the power of the government to impose her values on society.[324] At the album's conclusion, Waters returns to empathy with the lyrical statement: "You know that I care what happens to you. And I know that you care for me too."[325] However, he also acknowledges that the "Pigs" are a continuing threat and reveals that he is a "Dog" who requires shelter, suggesting the need for a balance between state, commerce and community, versus an ongoing battle between them.[326]

Alienation, war, and insanity
"When I say, 'I'll see you on the dark side of the moon' ... what I mean [is] ... If you feel that you're the only one ... that you seem crazy [because] you think everything is crazy, you're not alone."[327]
—Waters, quoted in Harris, 2005
O'Neill Surber compared the lyrics of Dark Side of the Moon's "Brain Damage" with Karl Marx's theory of self-alienation; "there's someone in my head, but it's not me."[328][nb 58] The lyrics to Wish You Were Here's "Welcome to the Machine" suggest what Marx called the alienation of the thing; the song's protagonist preoccupied with material possessions to the point that he becomes estranged from himself and others.[328] Allusions to the alienation of man's species being can be found in Animals; the "Dog" reduced to living instinctively as a non-human.[329] The "Dogs" become alienated from themselves to the extent that they justify their lack of integrity as a "necessary and defensible" position in "a cutthroat world with no room for empathy or moral principle" wrote Detmer.[330] Alienation from others is a consistent theme in the lyrics of Pink Floyd, and it is a core element of The Wall.[328]

War, viewed as the most severe consequence of the manifestation of alienation from others, is also a core element of The Wall, and a recurring theme in the band's music.[331] Waters' father died in combat during the Second World War, and his lyrics often alluded to the cost of war, including those from "Corporal Clegg" (1968), "Free Four" (1972), "Us and Them" (1973), "When the Tigers Broke Free" and "The Fletcher Memorial Home" from The Final Cut (1983), an album dedicated to his late father and subtitled A Requiem for the Postwar Dream.[332] The themes and composition of The Wall express Waters' upbringing in an English society depleted of men after the Second World War, a condition that negatively affected his personal relationships with women.[333]

Waters' lyrics to The Dark Side of the Moon dealt with the pressures of modern life and how those pressures can sometimes cause insanity.[334] He viewed the album's explication of mental illness as illuminating a universal condition.[335] However, Waters also wanted the album to communicate positivity, calling it "an exhortation ... to embrace the positive and reject the negative."[336] Reisch described The Wall as "less about the experience of madness than the habits, institutions, and social structures that create or cause madness."[337] The Wall's protagonist, Pink, is unable to deal with the circumstances of his life, and overcome by feelings of guilt, slowly closes himself off from the outside world inside a barrier of his own making. After he completes his estrangement from the world, Pink realises that he is "crazy, over the rainbow".[338] He then considers the possibility that his condition may be his own fault: "have I been guilty all this time?"[338] Realising his greatest fear, Pink believes that he has let everyone down, his overbearing mother wisely choosing to smother him, the teachers rightly criticising his poetic aspirations, and his wife justified in leaving him. He then stands trial for "showing feelings of an almost human nature", further exacerbating his alienation of species being.[339] As with the writings of philosopher Michel Foucault, Waters' lyrics suggest Pink's insanity is a product of modern life, the elements of which, "custom, codependancies, and psychopathologies", contribute to his angst, according to Reisch.[340]

Legacy
Pink Floyd are one of the most commercially successful and influential rock bands of all time.[341] They have sold more than 250 million records worldwide, including 75 million certified units in the United States, and 37.9 million albums sold in the US since 1993.[342] The Sunday Times Rich List, Music Millionaires 2013 (UK), ranked Waters at number 12 with an estimated fortune of £150 million, Gilmour at number 27 with £85 million and Mason at number 37 with £50 million.[343]

In 2004, MSNBC ranked Pink Floyd number 8 on their list of "The 10 Best Rock Bands Ever".[344] Rolling Stone ranked them number 51 on their list of "The 100 Greatest Artists of All Time".[345] Q named Pink Floyd as the biggest band of all time.[346] VH1 ranked them number 18 in the list of the "100 Greatest Artists of All Time".[347] Colin Larkin ranked Pink Floyd number 3 in his list of the 'Top 50 Artists of All Time', a ranking based on the cumulative votes for each artist's albums included in his All Time Top 1000 Albums.[348]

Pink Floyd have won several awards. In 1981 audio engineer James Guthrie won the Grammy Award for "Best Engineered Non-Classical Album" for The Wall, and Roger Waters won the British Academy of Film and Television Arts award for "Best Original Song Written for a Film" in 1983 for "Another Brick in the Wall" from The Wall film.[349] In 1995, Pink Floyd won the Grammy for "Best Rock Instrumental Performance" for "Marooned".[350] In 2008, King Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden presented Pink Floyd with the Polar Music Prize for their contribution to modern music; Waters and Mason attended the ceremony and accepted the award.[351] They were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1996, the UK Music Hall of Fame in 2005, and the Hit Parade Hall of Fame in 2010.[352]


Pink Floyd's The Wall exhibit at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame
Pink Floyd have influenced numerous artists. David Bowie called Barrett a significant inspiration, and The Edge of U2 bought his first delay pedal after hearing the opening guitar chords to "Dogs" from Animals.[353] Other bands and artists who cite them as an influence include Queen, Tool, Radiohead, Steven Wilson, Kraftwerk, Marillion, Queensrÿche, Nine Inch Nails, the Orb and the Smashing Pumpkins.[354] Pink Floyd were an influence on the neo-progressive rock subgenre which emerged in the 1980s.[355] The English rock band Mostly Autumn "fuse the music of Genesis and Pink Floyd" in their sound.[356]

Pink Floyd were admirers of the Monty Python comedy group, and helped finance their 1975 film Monty Python and the Holy Grail.[357] In May 2017, to mark the 50th anniversary of Pink Floyd's first single, an audio-visual exhibition, Their Mortal Remains, opened at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London.[358] The exhibition featured analysis of cover art, conceptual props from the stage shows, and photographs from Mason's personal archive.[359][360] It was extended for two weeks beyond its planned closing date of 1 October.[361]

Members
Main article: List of Pink Floyd band members
Roger Waters – bass, vocals, rhythm guitar (1965–1985, 2005)
David Gilmour – lead and rhythm guitars, vocals, bass, keyboards (1967–1995, 2005, 2012–2014)
Nick Mason – drums, percussion, vocals (1965–1995, 2005, 2012–2014)
Richard Wright – keyboards, piano, organ, vocals (1965–1979, 1987–1995, 2005; died 2008)
Syd Barrett – lead and rhythm guitars, vocals (1965–1968; died 2006)
Discography
Main article: Pink Floyd discography
The Piper at the Gates of Dawn (1967)
A Saucerful of Secrets (1968)
More (1969)
Ummagumma (1969)
Atom Heart Mother (1970)
Meddle (1971)
Obscured by Clouds (1972)
The Dark Side of the Moon (1973)
Wish You Were Here (1975)
Animals (1977)
The Wall (1979)
The Final Cut (1983)
A Momentary Lapse of Reason (1987)
The Division Bell (1994)
The Endless River (2014)
Tours
Main article: Pink Floyd live performances
Pink Floyd World Tour (1968)
The Man and The Journey Tour (1969)
Atom Heart Mother World Tour (1970-71)
Meddle Tour (1971)
Dark Side of the Moon Tour (1972–73)
French Summer Tour (1974)
British Winter Tour (1974)
Wish You Were Here Tour (1975)
In the Flesh Tour (1977)
The Wall Tour (1980–81)
A Momentary Lapse of Reason Tour (1987–89)
The Division Bell Tour (1994)
icon	
Book: Pink Floyd
Notes
 Wright studied architecture until 1963, when he began studying music at London's Royal College of Music.[2]
 Leonard designed light machines, which used electric motors to spin perforated discs, casting patterns of lights on the walls. These would be demonstrated in an early edition of Tomorrow's World. For a brief time, Leonard played keyboard with them using the front room of his flat for rehearsals.[5]
 Wright also briefly lived at Leonard's.[6]
 Povey spelled it Meggadeaths but Blake spelled it Megadeaths.[8] Architectural Abdabs is sometimes suggested as another variation; Povey dismisses it as a misreading of a headline about the Abdabs in the Polytechnic's student newspaper.[9] Povey used the Tea Set throughout whereas Blake's claim of the alternative spelling, the T-Set, remains unsubstantiated.[10]
 The four-song session became the band's first demo and included the R&B classic "I'm a King Bee" (original of bluesman Slime Harpo, and three Syd Barrett originals, "Butterfly", "Lucy Leave" and "Double O Bo", a song Mason described as "Bo Diddley meets the 007 theme".[16]
 According to Povey, by 1964 the group began calling itself the Abdabs.[6]
 Soon after, someone stole the equipment, and the group resorted to purchasing new gear on a payment plan.[24]
 They dropped the definite article from the band's name at some point in early 1967.[34]
 Schaffner described the £5,000 advance as generous; however, Povey suggested it was an inadequate agreement which required that the money be disbursed over five years.[36]
 Previous to this session, on 11 and 12 January, they recorded a long take of "Interstellar Overdrive".[36] Sometime around the sessions on 29 January, they produced a short music film for "Arnold Layne" in Sussex.[37]
 At EMI, Pink Floyd experimented with musique concrète and watched the Beatles record "Lovely Rita".[45]
 Blackhill's late application for work permits forced Pink Floyd to cancel several of the US dates.[53]
 Pink Floyd released the single "Apples and Oranges" in November 1967 in the UK.[56]
 Barrett's absence on more than one occasion forced the band to book David O'List as his replacement.[58] Wynne-Willson left his position as lighting director and assisted the guitarist with his daily activities.[59]
 In late 1967, Barrett suggested adding four new members; in the words of Waters: "two freaks he'd met somewhere. One of them played the banjo, the other the saxophone ... [and] a couple of chick singers".[61]
 One of Gilmour's first tasks was to mime Barrett's guitar playing on an "Apples and Oranges" promotional film.[66]
 Mason is unsure which member of Pink Floyd said "let's not bother".[69]
 For a short period after, Barrett turned up at occasional performances, apparently confused about his standing with the band.[75]
 Thorgerson had attended Cambridgeshire High School for Boys with Waters and Barrett.[82]
 The band recorded their previous LPs using a four-track system; Atom Heart Mother was their first album recorded on an eight-track machine.[89]
 A theft of the band's equipment, worth about $40,000, after a May 1970 show at the Warehouse in New Orleans, nearly crippled their finances. However, hours after the band notified the FBI they had recovered most of the stolen equipment.
 Povey states that the UK release date was 5 November, but Pink Floyd's official website states 13 November. All sources agree on the US release date of 30 October.[99]
 Meddle's production consisted of sessions spread over several months; the band recorded in the first half of April, but in the latter half played at Doncaster and Norwich before returning to record at the end of the month. In May, they split their time between sessions at Abbey Road, rehearsals and concerts across Great Britain. They spent June and July performing at venues across Europe, and August in the far east and Australia, returning to Europe in September.[100] In October, they made the concert film Pink Floyd: Live at Pompeii, before touring the US in November.[101]
 Immediately after the session, Barrett attended a pre-party held for Gilmour's upcoming first wedding, but eventually left without saying goodbye and none of the band members ever saw him again, apart from a run-in between Waters and Barrett a couple of years later.[131] The inspiration behind the cover image, designed by Thorgerson, is the idea that people tend to conceal their true feelings for fear of "getting burned", wrote Pink Floyd biographer Glen Povey. Therefore, it features two businessmen shown shaking hands; one of them is on fire.[132]
 Brian Humphries engineered the album, which was completed in December 1976.[136]
 The band commissioned a 30 feet (9.1 m) pig-shaped balloon and photography began on 2 December. Inclement weather delayed filming, and the balloon broke free of its moorings in strong winds. It eventually landed in Kent, where a local farmer recovered it, reportedly furious that it had frightened his cows.[138] The difficult shoot had resumed before they decided to superimpose the image of the pig onto the photograph of the power station.[139]
 "Pigs on the Wing" contained references to Waters' romantic relationship with Carolyne Anne Christie. Christie and Rock Scully, manager of the Grateful Dead, were married at the time. Waters' marriage to Judy had produced no children, but he became a father with Christie in November 1976.[142]
 Waters was not the only person depressed by playing in large venues, as Gilmour refused to perform the band's usual encore that night.[147]
 In 1976, Pink Floyd had become involved with financial advisers Norton Warburg Group (NWG). NWG became the band's collecting agents and handled all financial planning, for an annual fee of about £300,000 (equivalent to £1,690,500 in 2018[23]). NWG invested between £1.6 million and £3.3 million of the band's money in high-risk venture capital schemes, primarily to reduce their exposure to UK taxes. It soon became apparent that the band were still losing money. Not only did NWG invest in failing businesses, they also left the band liable for tax bills as high as 83 per cent of their income. The band eventually terminated their relationship with NWG and demanded the return of any funds not yet invested, which at that time amounted to £860,000; they received only £740,000.[151] Pink Floyd eventually sued NWG for £1M, accusing them of fraud and negligence. NWG collapsed in 1981: Andrew Warburg fled to Spain; Waterbrook purchased Norton Warburg Investments, and many of its holdings sold at a significant loss. Andrew Warburg began serving a three-year jail sentence upon his return to the UK in 1987.[151]
 James Guthrie replaced engineer Brian Humphries, emotionally drained by his five years with the band, for the recording of the album.[154] In March 1979, the band's dire financial situation demanded that they leave the UK for a year, or more and recording moved to the Super Bear Studios near Nice.[155]
 Although Wright's name did not appear anywhere on the finished album, Pink Floyd employed him as a paid musician on their subsequent The Wall tour.[160] Towards the end of The Wall sessions, Mason left the final mix to Waters, Gilmour, Ezrin and Guthrie, travelling to New York to record his debut solo album, Nick Mason's Fictitious Sports.[161]
 Waters took a six-week leave during filming and returned to find that Parker had used his artistic license to modify parts of the film to his liking. Waters became incensed; the two fought, and Parker threatened to walk out. Gilmour urged Waters to reconsider his stance, reminding the bassist that he and the other band members were shareholders and directors and could outvote him on such decisions.[169]
 Pink Floyd created a modified soundtrack for some of the film's songs.[169]
 Recording took place in eight studios, including Gilmour's home studio at Hookend Manor and Waters' home studio at East Sheen.[173]
 During the sessions, Waters lost his temper and began ranting at Kamen who, out of frustration during one recording session, had started repeatedly writing "I Must Not Fuck Sheep" on a notepad in the studio's control room.[172]
 Waters commissioned his brother-in-law, Willie Christie, to take photographs for the album cover.[175]
 Though Gilmour's name did not appear on the production credits, he retained his pay as musician and producer.[179]
 Released as a single, "Not Now John", with its chorus of "Fuck all that" bowdlerised to "Stuff all that"; Melody Maker declared it "a milestone in the history of awfulness".[181]
 Wright was also in the midst of a difficult divorce and later said that the album was, "made at a time in my life when I was lost."[184]
 Waters went on to record the soundtrack for When the Wind Blows, as well as his second solo album, Radio K.A.O.S..[186]
 Artists such as Jon Carin and Phil Manzanera worked on the album, joined by Bob Ezrin.[190]
 Andy Jackson engineered the album.[194]
 In a departure from previous Pink Floyd albums, they recorded A Momentary Lapse of Reason using a 32-channel Mitsubishi digital recorder using MIDI synchronisation with the aid of an Apple Macintosh computer.[198] Recording later moved to Mayfair Studios and then to Los Angeles.[199]
 Wright's name appears only on the credit list.[202]
 Gilmour divorced his wife Ginger and Mason married actress Annette Lynton.[211]
 Thorgerson also provided six new pieces of film for the upcoming tour.[217]
 Waters declined their invitation to join them as the tour reached Europe.[222]
 In 1995, Pink Floyd released the live album, Pulse, and an accompanying concert video.[223]
 In the week following their performance, there was a resurgence of commercial interest in Pink Floyd's music, when according to HMV, sales of Echoes: The Best of Pink Floyd rose more than one thousand per cent, while Amazon.com reported a significant increase in sales of The Wall.[228] Gilmour subsequently declared that he would give his share of profits from this sales boost to charity, urging other associated artists and record companies to do the same.[228]
 In 2006, Gilmour began a tour of small concert venues with contributions from Wright and other musicians from the post-Waters Pink Floyd tours. Gilmour, Wright, and Mason's encore performance of "Wish You Were Here" and "Comfortably Numb" marked the only appearance by Pink Floyd since Live 8 as of 2012.[233]
 Barrett left more than £1.25M in his will, to be divided among his immediate family, who then auctioned some of his possessions and artwork.[236]
 On 4 January 2011, Pink Floyd signed a five-year record deal with EMI, ending the legal dispute regarding the distribution of their catalogue. They successfully defended their vision to support their albums as cohesive units versus individual tracks.[244]
 It was the first time since Live 8 that the three men shared a stage and the first time that the line-up from The Final Cut appeared in concert.[246]
 In early 1965, Pink Floyd auditioned for ITV's Ready Steady Go!, which Mason described as "the definitive music show of the day".[269] Despite sounding what Mason considered "too radical for the general viewer", they earned a callback for a second audition, with the caveat that they play material more familiar to the judges; they did not earn an appearance on the show.[270] Also in 1965, they auditioned for the Melody Maker Beat Contest, losing to the eventual national winners.[270]
 Road manager Peter Watts joined them before touring Europe in 1968.[302]
 Thorgerson's design for Wish You Were Here's cover included four sides, counting the inner jacket, which represented four absences related to the classical categories of substance: earth, air, fire and water. His Dark Side album cover features a beam of white light, representing unity, passing through a prism, which represents society. The resulting refracted beam of coloured light symbolises unity diffracted, leaving an absence of unity.[109] Absence is a key element in the existentialism of Albert Camus, who defined absurdity as the absence of a response to the individual's need for unity.[109]
 Philosophy originated from the Greek poet, Parmenides, who wrote a poem in which the protagonist takes a cosmic chariot ride guided by a goddess who shows him that there are only two paths in life, being, which leads to truth, and non-being, which leads to confusion and discontent. The goddess also told Parmenides: "thought and being are one".[318]
 Marx considered insanity the ultimate form of self-alienation.[328]
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 Blake 2008, p. 178.
 Mason 2005, p. 169: Synthesiser use in "On the Run"; Fitch 2005, p. 324: Synthesiser use on "Welcome to the Machine"; Fitch & Mahon 2006, p. 71: Synthesiser use on "In the Flesh?".
 Mabbett 1995, p. 39.
 Blake 2008, pp. 297–298.
 Mason 2005, pp. 133–135.
 Schaffner 1991, p. 128.
 Schaffner 1991, pp. 135–136.
 Schaffner 1991, pp. 156–157.
 Calore, Michael (12 May 2009). "12 May 1967: Pink Floyd Astounds With 'Sound in the Round'". Wired. Archived from the original on 25 August 2011. Retrieved 2 August 2012.
 Schaffner 1991, pp. 42–43.
 Fitch 2005, pp. 359–360: Peter Wynne-Willson; Mason 2005, pp. 78–79: Wynne-Willson updated the band's lighting rig with some innovative ideas.
 Mason 2005, p. 70.
 Povey 2008, p. 58.
 Mason 2005, pp. 115–119.
 Povey 2008, pp. 87: The television audience, 111: Pink Floyd performed a piece titled "Moonhead".
 Povey 2008, p. 183.
 Fitch 2005, p. 241.
 Blake 2008, pp. 280–282.
 Blake 2008, pp. 284–285.
 O'Neill Surber 2007, p. 192.
 Croskery 2007, p. 36.
 Reisch 2007, p. 268.
 Weinstein 2007, pp. 81–82.
 Fitch 2005, p. 133.
 Detmer 2007, p. 77.
 Detmer 2007, p. 75.
 O'Neill Surber 2007, p. 197.
 Thorgerson, Storm (1978). The Work of Hipgnosis – Walk Away Reneé. A & W. p. 148. ISBN 978-0-89104-105-4.
 Weinstein 2007, p. 90.
 O'Neill Surber 2007, p. 191.
 Croskery 2007, p. 35.
 Croskery 2007, pp. 35–36.
 Croskery 2007, pp. 37–40.
 Croskery 2007, p. 40.
 Croskery 2007, pp. 37–38.
 Croskery 2007, p. 39.
 Croskery 2007, p. 41.
 Croskery 2007, pp. 41–42.
 Harris 2005, p. 89.
 O'Neill Surber 2007, p. 195.
 O'Neill Surber 2007, p. 196.
 Detmer 2007, p. 73.
 O'Neill Surber 2007, pp. 195–196.
 Blake 2008, p. 294: The Final Cut dedicated to Waters' late father; George-Warren 2001, p. 761: A Requiem for the Postwar Dream.
 Blake 2008, pp. 294–295: The influence of WWII on The Wall, 351: An English society depleted of men after WWII.
 Blake 2008, pp. 194–195.
 Weinstein 2007, p. 85.
 Harris 2005, p. 81.
 Reisch 2007, p. 257.
 Reisch 2007, p. 263.
 Reisch 2007, pp. 263–264.
 Reisch 2007, pp. 258–264.
 "Rock & Roll Hall of Fame: Pink Floyd biography". Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Archived from the original on 9 June 2013. Retrieved 2 August 2012.
 For 250 million records sold see: "Pink Floyd Reunion Tops Fans' Wish List in Music Choice Survey". Bloomberg Television. 26 September 2007. Archived from the original on 12 August 2013. Retrieved 2 August 2012. ; For 75 million RIAA-certified units sold see: "Top Selling Artists". Recording Industry Association of America. Archived from the original on 19 July 2012. Retrieved 2 August 2012. ; For 37.9 million albums sold since 1993 see: "The Nielsen Company & Billboard's 2012 Music Industry Report". Business Wire. 4 January 2013. Archived from the original on 12 January 2013. Retrieved 10 May 2014.
 "Sunday Times Rich List 2013: Music Millionaires". 2013. Archived from the original on 28 November 2013. Retrieved 23 November 2013.
 Olsen, Eric (3 March 2004). "The 10 best rock bands ever: A purely subjective list of the groups that changed music forever". today.com. Archived from the original on 27 September 2013. Retrieved 2 August 2012.
 "100 Greatest Artists: 51) Pink Floyd". Rolling Stone. 3 December 2010. Archived from the original on 9 June 2013. Retrieved 2 August 2012.
 Barnes, Anthony (3 October 2004). "Q: Which is biggest band of all time? A: And readers say ..." The Independent. London. Archived from the original on 4 August 2012. Retrieved 2 August 2012.
 For VH1's "100 Greatest Artists of All Time" see: Juzwiak, Rich (10 August 2010). "Who Will Come Out on Top of VH1's 100 Greatest Artists of All Time?". VH1. Archived from the original on 23 September 2011. Retrieved 23 August 2012.
 Larkin, Colin (1998). All Time Top 1000 Albums: The World's Most Authoritative Guide to the Perfect Record Collection. Virgin. p. 281. ISBN 978-0-7535-0258-7.
 Povey 2008, p. 348: Grammy award for The Wall; For the 1982 BAFTA awards see: "BAFTA: Awards Database". BAFTA. 1982. Archived from the original on 27 September 2013. Retrieved 2 August 2012.
 "And the Winners Are ..." The New York Times. 2 March 1995. Archived from the original on 6 August 2012. Retrieved 2 August 2012.
 Nordstrom, Louise (21 May 2008). "Pink Floyd wins Polar Music Prize". USA Today. Archived from the original on 4 November 2012. Retrieved 7 October 2010.
 Povey 2008, p. 286: Rock and Roll Hall of Fame induction; Povey 2008, p. 287: The UK Hall of Fame induction; For the Hit Parade Hall of Fame induction see: "Pink Floyd – 2010 Inductee". Hit Parade Hall of Fame. Archived from the original on 12 November 2012. Retrieved 2 August 2012.
 For Bowie naming Barrett an inspiration see: Bychawski, Adam (11 July 2006). "David Bowie pays tribute to Syd Barrett". NME. Archived from the original on 9 June 2013. Retrieved 13 October 2009. ; For Edge buying his first delay pedal see: McCormick, Neil, ed. (2006). U2 by U2. HarperCollins. p. 102. ISBN 978-0-00-719668-5.
 For Queen citing Pink Floyd as an influence see: Sutcillfe, Phil (2009). Queen: The Ultimate Illustrated History of the Crown Kings of Rock. Voyageur Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-7603-3719-6.; For Kraftwerk see: Queenan, Joe (22 February 2008). "Vorsprung durch Techno". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 11 January 2014. Retrieved 31 August 2012. ; For Marillion see: Thore, Kim (27 August 2009). "Steve Rothery Interview". All Access Magazine. Archived from the original on 25 March 2014. Retrieved 24 March 2014. ; For Tool see: The 50 Greatest Bands. Spin. February 2002. p. 78. Archived from the original on 24 June 2016. Retrieved 31 August 2012. ; Manning 2006, p. 288: Queensryche, the Orb, Nemrud, the Smashing Pumpkins; 289: Radiohead; Kitts & Tolinski 2002, p. 126: For Nine Inch Nails see the back cover; For Steven Wilson, see: Masters, Tim (6 September 2012). "Genesis honoured at Progressive Music awards". BBC News. BBC. Archived from the original on 13 January 2018. Retrieved 30 December 2017.
 "Pop/Rock " Art-Rock/Experimental " Neo-Prog". AllMusic. Archived from the original on 4 September 2015. Retrieved 28 July 2015.
 Lambe, Stephen. "New Prog Rock festival hits Gloucester". BBC. Archived from the original on 1 May 2017. Retrieved 22 December 2015.
 Johnson, Steve (6 May 2009). "Cue the coconuts: 'Holy Grail' gallops on". Chicago Tribune. Archived from the original on 5 December 2014. Retrieved 30 November 2014.
 "Pink Floyd exhibition announced for Victoria and Albert Museum". BBC News. 31 August 2016. Archived from the original on 28 November 2017. Retrieved 1 October 2017.
 "V&A – Pink Floyd: Their Mortal Remains". Victoria and Albert Museum. Archived from the original on 22 October 2017. Retrieved 7 October 2017.
 "Ambitious, fascinating and faceless – just like Pink Floyd themselves: Their Mortal Remains, V&A, review". The Daily Telegraph. 7 May 2018. Archived from the original on 9 October 2017. Retrieved 7 October 2017.
 "Pink Floyd exhibition set to become V&A's most visited music show". The Guardian. 30 August 2017. Archived from the original on 7 October 2017. Retrieved 7 October 2017.
Sources
Blake, Mark (2008). Comfortably Numb: The Inside Story of Pink Floyd. Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0-306-81752-6.
Bronson, Fred (1992). Weiler, Fred (ed.). The Billboard Book of Number One Hits. Billboard Books (3rd revised ed.). ISBN 978-0-8230-8298-8.
Brown, Jimmy (May 2006). "Sorcerer Full of Secrets". Guitar World. 27 (5).
di Perna, Alan (May 2006). "Shine On". Guitar World. 27 (5).
di Perna, Alan (2002). "Mysterious Ways". In Kitts, Jeff; Tolinski, Brad (eds.). Guitar World Presents: Pink Floyd. Hal Leonard. ISBN 978-0-7546-6708-7.
Chapman, Rob (2012). Syd Barrett and British Psychedelia: Faber Forty-Fives: 1966–1967. Faber & Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-29676-7.
Croskery, Patrick (2007). "Pigs Training Dogs to Exploit Sheep: Animals as a Beast Fable Dystopia". In Reisch, George A (ed.). Pink Floyd and Philosophy: Careful with that Axiom, Eugene!. Open Court. ISBN 978-0-8126-9636-3.
DeRogatis, Jim (2006). Staring at Sound: The True Story of Oklahoma's Fabulous Flaming Lips. Broadway Books. ISBN 978-0-7679-2140-4.
Detmer, David (2007). "Dragged Down by the Stone: Pink Floyd, Alienation, and the Pressures of Life". In Reisch, George A (ed.). Pink Floyd and Philosophy: Careful with that Axiom, Eugene!. Open Court. ISBN 978-0-8126-9636-3.
Fitch, Vernon (2005). The Pink Floyd Encyclopedia (Third ed.). Collector's Guide Publishing. ISBN 978-1-894959-24-7.
Fitch, Vernon (2001). Pink Floyd: The Press Reports 1966–1983. Collector's Guide Publishing Inc. ISBN 978-1-896522-72-2.
Fitch, Vernon; Mahon, Richard (2006). Comfortably Numb: A History of "The Wall", Pink Floyd, 1978–1981 (1st ed.). PFA Publishing, Inc. ISBN 978-0-9777366-0-7.
George-Warren, Holly, ed. (2001). The Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock & Roll (2005 revised and updated ed.). Fireside. ISBN 978-0-7432-9201-6.
Harris, John (2005). The Dark Side of the Moon (First Hardcover ed.). Da Capo. ISBN 978-0-306-81342-9.
Hibbert, Tom (1996) [1971]. "Who the hell does Roger Waters think he is?". In MacDonald, Bruno (ed.). Pink Floyd: Through the Eyes of the Band, Its Fans and Foes. Da Capo. ISBN 978-0-306-80780-0.
Kitts, Jeff; Tolinski, Brad, eds. (2002). Guitar World Presents: Pink Floyd. Hal Leonard. ISBN 978-0-7546-6708-7.
Mabbett, Andy (1995). The Complete Guide to the Music of Pink Floyd (1st UK paperback ed.). Omnibus Press. ISBN 978-0-7119-4301-8.
Manning, Toby (2006). The Rough Guide to Pink Floyd (First ed.). Rough Guides. ISBN 978-1-84353-575-1.
Mason, Nick (2005) [2004]. Dodd, Philip (ed.). Inside Out: A Personal History of Pink Floyd (Paperback ed.). Phoenix. ISBN 978-0-7538-1906-7.
Povey, Glenn (2008) [2007]. Echoes: The Complete History of Pink Floyd. Mind Head Publishing. ISBN 978-0-9554624-1-2.
Reisch, George A (2007). "The Worms and the Wall: Michael Foucault on Syd Barrett". In Reisch, George A (ed.). Pink Floyd and Philosophy: Careful with that Axiom, Eugene!. Open Court. ISBN 978-0-8126-9636-3.
Roberts, David, ed. (2005). British Hit Singles & Albums (18 ed.). Guinness World Records Limited. ISBN 978-1-904994-00-8.
Rosen, Craig (1996). Lukas, Paul (ed.). The Billboard Book of Number One Albums. Billboard. ISBN 978-0-8230-7586-7.
Schaffner, Nicholas (1991). Saucerful of Secrets (First ed.). Sidgwick & Jackson. ISBN 978-0-283-06127-1.
Scarfe, Gerald (2010). The Making of Pink Floyd: The Wall (1st US paperback ed.). Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0-306-81997-1.
Simmons, Sylvie (December 1999). "Pink Floyd: The Making of The Wall". Mojo Magazine. 73.
O'Neill Surber, Jere (2007). "Wish You Were Here (But You Aren't): Pink Floyd and Non-Being". In Reisch, George A (ed.). Pink Floyd and Philosophy: Careful with that Axiom, Eugene!. Open Court. ISBN 978-0-8126-9636-3.
Watkinson, Mike; Anderson, Pete (2001). Crazy Diamond: Syd Barrett & the Dawn of Pink Floyd (First ed.). Omnibus Press. ISBN 978-0-7119-2397-3.
Watts, Michael (1996) [1971]. "Pink's muddled Meddle". In MacDonald, Bruno (ed.). Pink Floyd: Through the Eyes of the Band, Its Fans and Foes. Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0-306-80780-0.
Weinstein, Deena (2007). "Roger Waters: Artist of the Absurd". In Reisch, George A (ed.). Pink Floyd and Philosophy: Careful with that Axiom, Eugene!. Open Court. ISBN 978-0-8126-9636-3.
Further reading
Books

Bench, Jeff; O'Brien, Daniel (2004). Pink Floyd's The Wall: In the Studio, on Stage and on Screen (First UK paperback ed.). Reynolds and Hearn. ISBN 978-1-903111-82-6.
Hearn, Marcus (2012). Pink Floyd. Titan Books. ISBN 978-0-85768-664-0.
Jones, Cliff (1996). Another Brick in the Wall: The Stories Behind Every Pink Floyd Song. ISBN 978-0-553-06733-0.
Mabbett, Andy (2010). Pink Floyd: The Music and the Mystery. Omnibus Press. ISBN 978-1-84938-370-7.
Mabbett, Andy; Miles (1988). Pink Floyd: 25th Anniversary Edition (Visual Documentary). ISBN 978-0-7119-4109-0.
Miles, Barry (2007). Pink Floyd. Omnibus Press. ISBN 978-1-84609-444-6.
Palacios, Julian (2001). Lost in the Woods: Syd Barrett and the Pink Floyd. ISBN 978-0-7522-2328-5.
Povey, Glen; Russell, Ian (1997). Pink Floyd: In the Flesh: The Complete Performance History (1st US paperback ed.). St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-9554624-0-5.
Reising, Russell (2005). Speak to Me. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 978-0-7546-4019-6.
Ruhlmann, William (2004). Breaking Records. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-94305-5.
Ruhlmann, William (1993). Pink Floyd. Smithmark. ISBN 978-0-8317-6912-3.
Snider, Charles (2008). The Strawberry Bricks Guide to Progressive Rock. Strawberry Bricks. ISBN 978-0-615-17566-9.
Documentaries

CreateSpace (2009). Pink Floyd: Meddle (Streaming video). Sexy Intellectual. ASIN B002J4V9RI.
John Edginton (Director) (2012). Pink Floyd: The Story of Wish You Were Here (Colour, NTSC, DVD). Eagle Rock Entertainment. ASIN B007X6ZRMA.
Matthew Longfellow (Director) (2003). Classic Albums: The Making of The Dark Side of the Moon (Colour, Dolby, NTSC, DVD). Eagle Rock Entertainment. ASIN B0000AOV85.
Pink Floyd (2007). Pink Floyd – Then and Now (Colour, NTSC DVD). Pride. ASIN B007EQQX04.
Pink Floyd (2010). Pink Floyd – Whatever Happened to Pink Floyd? (Colour, NTSC, DVD). Sexy Intellectual. ASIN B004D0AMN8.
External links
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Pink Floyd
Nick MasonRoger WatersRichard WrightSyd BarrettDavid Gilmour
Studio albums	
The Piper at the Gates of DawnA Saucerful of SecretsMoreUmmagummaAtom Heart MotherMeddleObscured by CloudsThe Dark Side of the MoonWish You Were HereAnimalsThe WallThe Final CutA Momentary Lapse of ReasonThe Division BellThe Endless River
Live albums	
UmmagummaDelicate Sound of ThunderPulseIs There Anybody Out There? The Wall Live 1980–81
Singles	
"Arnold Layne" / "Candy and a Currant Bun""See Emily Play" / "The Scarecrow""Flaming" / "The Gnome" (US)"Apples and Oranges" / "Paint Box" (UK)"It Would Be So Nice" / "Julia Dream""Let There Be More Light" / "Remember a Day" (US)"Point Me at the Sky" / "Careful with That Axe, Eugene" (UK)"One of These Days" / "Fearless" (US)"Free Four""Money" / "Any Colour You Like" (US)"Time" / "Us and Them" (US)"Have a Cigar" / "Welcome to the Machine" (US) or "Shine On You Crazy Diamond Part I" (Europe)"Another Brick in the Wall (Part II)" / "One of My Turns""Run Like Hell" / "Don't Leave Me Now" (Europe/some US) or "Comfortably Numb" (later US)"Comfortably Numb" / "Hey You" (US)"Pink Floyd The Wall - Music From The Film" ("When the Tigers Broke Free" / "Bring the Boys Back Home")"Not Now John" / "The Hero's Return (Parts 1 and 2)""Learning to Fly" / "Terminal Frost" and/or "One Slip""On the Turning Away" / "Run Like Hell (live)" (UK)"One Slip" / "Terminal Frost" / "The Dogs of War" (UK)"Keep Talking" / "Take It Back" (US)"Lost for Words" (US)"What Do You Want from Me" (US)"Take It Back" / "Astronomy Domine (live)" (Europe/some US)"High Hopes" / "Keep Talking" / "Marooned" (Europe/some US)"Wish You Were Here (Live)" / "Coming Back to Life (live) / "Keep Talking (live)" (UK)"Louder than Words"
Compilations	
The Best of the Pink FloydRelicsA Nice PairA Collection of Great Dance SongsWorks1967: The First Three SinglesEchoes: The Best of Pink FloydThe Best of Pink Floyd: A Foot in the Door1965: Their First Recordings
Box sets	
Shine OnOh, by the WayDiscoveryThe Early Years 1965–1972
Films	
Concerts	
London '66–'67Live at PompeiiDelicate Sound of ThunderPulse
Narratives	
The WallThe Final Cut
Documentaries	
The Pink Floyd and Syd Barrett StoryLondon '66–'67The Story of Wish You Were Here
Soundtracks	
San FranciscoThe CommitteeTonite Lets All Make Love in LondonMoreZabriskie PointObscured by CloudsPink Floyd – The WallLa Carrera Panamericana
Tours	
World Tour 1968The Man and The Journey TourAtom Heart Mother World TourMeddle TourDark Side of the Moon Tour1974Wish You Were Here TourIn the FleshThe Wall TourA Momentary Lapse of Reason TourThe Division Bell Tour
Related media
and tributes	
19367 Pink FloydThe Amazing PuddingThe Australian Pink Floyd ShowBarn JamsBrit FloydThe Dark Side of the Moo"Grantchester Meadows""Embryo"Inside Out: A Personal History of Pink FloydThe Man and The JourneyMusic from The BodyNick Mason's Saucerful of SecretsPinkfloydiaPink Floyd: The Music and the Mystery"Proper Education"Synalpheus pinkfloydiUmma gummaTheir Mortal Remains
Other topics	
DiscographyVideographySong listUnreleased materialMembersBootleg recordingsPink Floyd live performancesThe 14 Hour Technicolor DreamAzimuth Co-ordinatorBlackhill EnterprisesBritannia Row StudiosDark Side of the RainbowGames for MayPink Floyd pigsPublius EnigmaWhy Pink Floyd...?Live at the Empire Pool
 Wikipedia book Book Category Category
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British Underground
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Rock and Roll Hall of Fame – Class of 1996
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Laureates of the Polar Music Prize
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Nick Mason
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Roger Waters
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Richard Wright
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Syd Barrett
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David Gilmour
Authority control Edit this at Wikidata	
BIBSYS: 90350024BNC: 000236297BNE: XX254199BNF: cb139058178 (data)GND: 1214989-5ISNI: 0000 0001 0939 7559LCCN: n82000561MusicBrainz: 83d91898-7763-47d7-b03b-b92132375c47NDL: 00297643NKC: kn20020506004NLA: 36222524NLA-person: 1232118NLI: 001720789SELIBR: 220711SUDOC: 027590577VIAF: 120713567WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 120713567
Categories: Spoken articlesPink Floyd1995 disestablishments in the United Kingdom1965 establishments in the United KingdomMusical groups established in 1965Musical groups disestablished in 1995British rhythm and blues boom musiciansEnglish psychedelic rock music groupsEnglish progressive rock groupsArt rock musical groupsSpace rock musical groupsCapitol Records artistsColumbia Records artistsHarvest Records artistsParlophone artistsProto-prog musiciansMusical groups from LondonEcho (music award) winnersGrammy Award winnersNick MasonRoger WatersRichard Wright (musician)Syd BarrettDavid GilmourJuno Award for International Album of the Year winners
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Pink Floyd
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Pink Floyd
Origin	London, England
Genres	Progressive rock, space rock, psychedelic rock, art rock
Years active	1965–1994, 2014
(One-off reunion 2005)
Labels	EMI, Harvest, Capitol, Tower, Columbia
Associated acts	Joker's Wild, Zee, Deep End
Website	www.pinkfloyd.co.uk
Past members
Syd Barrett
Roger Waters
David Gilmour
Richard Wright
Nick Mason
Pink Floyd were an English rock band that became famous in the 1960s and 1970s. They performed for more than 30 years, and have sold more than 200 million (200,000,000) albums. They are famous for their live shows and deep music. Most of their albums are concept albums, which means every song is linked through a theme. Their first album was The Piper at the Gates of Dawn, which was released in 1967. Their latest album is The Endless River, which was released in November 2014. The band were named after the blues artists Pink Anderson and Floyd Council by Syd Barrett, one of the band's founder members. In 2005, they played at a concert called Live 8 after 24 years of not playing together. The line up was David Gilmour, Roger Waters, Nick Mason and Richard Wright. They have made some very popular albums including The Dark Side of the Moon, which was released in 1973 and The Wall, which was released in 1979. After Richard Wright died in 2008, David Gilmour has said that he does not want to reunite, despite Roger saying he might want to. It is now believed that David Gilmour and Roger Waters are friends after becoming enemies for a long time.


Contents
1	Early history
2	Later history
3	Pink Floyd without Roger Waters
4	Discography
5	Other websites
Early history
Syd Barrett started the group, and played guitar and sang in the band. He left soon after, at the start of 1968, because of a mental illness that was made worse by heavy drug use. The other people in the band were Roger Waters (bass guitar and vocals), David Gilmour (lead guitar and vocals), Richard Wright (keyboard and vocals), and Nick Mason (drums). David Gilmour joined the band in 1968. Roger Waters quit the band in 1985.

During most of their career, they played a kind of rock music that some people call progressive rock.

Later history
The original members of Pink Floyd met in an architectural college. The band started as a blues band. Later, under Syd Barrett's leadership, they played music that was psychedelic in style. After Barrett left the band, they started to play longer and more complicated songs, and to play at a lot of colleges and universities. Soon, they were famous as studio musicians who loved to experiment with music. On the album Atom Heart Mother, from 1970, they used a brass band and a choir.

They used a lot of things to make their concerts interesting to watch. They had a round movie screen on the stage. They would show videos on the screen when they played. They also used lighting and lasers in a much fancier way than many bands do. They also had big balloon puppets. The most famous is in the shape of a pig, which first appeared on the cover for their album, Animals. The pig has since become a symbol of Pink Floyd. Another symbol that reminds people of Pink Floyd is a prism with light shining through it. This was on the cover of Dark Side of the Moon, one of their most popular albums. The album was released in 1973, and stayed on music charts for a very long time. Millions of people bought it.

The album The Wall, recorded in 1979, was also famous. It was made into a movie, directed by Alan Parker, in 1982. That album is important to the history of the group. It talks about the distance they put between them and their fans. It was the last album they all worked on together before starting to split up.

Roger Waters forced Richard Wright to leave the band in 1979, but Wright came back in 1987, after Waters quit. Waters tried to sue the other members so that they could not call themselves Pink Floyd without him, but he did not succeed. Because of this and other reasons, there was a lot of anger and bitterness between Waters and the other members of the band, especially Gilmour.

Pink Floyd without Roger Waters
The last album of new songs that Pink Floyd released is called The Division Bell. It was made in 1994, when Pink Floyd also played their last concert tour. The very last time that Pink Floyd played was in 2005, as part of the Live 8 concerts for charity. Waters sang with the band for the first time since leaving the band. It was a big surprise to many people who thought Pink Floyd would never play together again, especially not with Roger Waters.

Syd Barrett died of pancreatic cancer in 2006. Richard Wright died of cancer in 2008.

In 2014, Pink Floyd released their first album in over 20 years: The Endless River.

Discography

Pink Floyd, 1973
Main article: Pink Floyd discography
The Piper at the Gates of Dawn (1967)
A Saucerful of Secrets (1968)
More (1969)
Ummagumma (studio & live album) (1969)
Atom Heart Mother (1970)
Meddle (1971)
Obscured by Clouds (1972)
Dark Side Of The Moon (1973)
Wish You Were Here (1975)
Animals (1977)
The Wall (1979)
The Final Cut (1983)
A Momentary Lapse of Reason (1987)
Delicate Sound of Thunder (live album) (1988)
The Division Bell (1994)
Pulse (live album) (1995)
Is There Anybody Out There? – The Wall Live 1980-81 (live album) (2000)
The Endless River (2014)
Other websites
	Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pink Floyd.
Pink Floyd's UK site
Pink Floyd's U.S. site
Another Link on the Wall - A large collection of fan sites, news resources and other websites, updated regularly.
vte
Pink Floyd
Syd Barrett · Richard Wright · Roger Waters · Nick Mason · David Gilmour
Studio albums	
The Piper at the Gates of Dawn · A Saucerful of Secrets · More · Obscured by Clouds · The Dark Side of the Moon · Wish You Were Here · Animals · The Wall · The Final Cut · A Momentary Lapse of Reason · The Endless River
Soundtracks	
The Committee · Tonite Let's All Make Love in London · Zabriskie Point ·
Live albums	
Ummagumma · Delicate Sound of Thunder · Pulse · Is There Anybody Out There? The Wall Live 1980–81
Compilations	
The Best of the Pink Floyd · Relics · A Nice Pair · Masters of Rock · A Collection of Great Dance Songs · Works · Shine On · (The Early Singles) · 1967: The First Three Singles · Echoes: The Best of Pink Floyd · Oh, by the Way
Films	
Live at Pompeii · The Wall · Delicate Sound of Thunder · La Carrera Panamericana · Pulse · The Pink Floyd and Syd Barrett Story · The Making of The Dark Side of the Moon · London '66-'67
Related articles	
Discography · Videography · Steve O'Rourke · Live performances · Pigs · Dark Side of the Rainbow · The Man and the Journey · Unreleased material  · Music from "The Body"  · Publius Enigma · 19367 Pink Floyd · List of Pink Floyd songs
Categories: Musical groups established in 19651965 establishments in EnglandMusical groups disestablished in 19941990s disestablishments in England1960s British music groups1970s British music groups1980s British music groups1990s British music groupsEnglish rock bandsMusical groups from LondonPink FloydProgressive rock bands
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Spartan army
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Sparta
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This article is part of the series:
Spartan Constitution

Great Rhetra
Laws of Lycurgus
Politeia
List of Kings of Sparta
Gerousia
Ephorate
Apella
Spartiates
Perioeci
Helots
Agoge
Syssitia
Spartan army •   Other Greek city-states •  Law Portal
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The Spartan army stood at the center of the Spartan state, citizens trained in the disciplines and honor of a warrior society.[1] Subject to military drill from early manhood, the Spartans became one of the most feared military forces in the Greek world. At the height of Sparta's power – between the 6th and 4th centuries BC – it was commonly accepted by other Greeks that "one Spartan was worth several men of any other state".[1] According to Thucydides, the famous moment of Spartan surrender on the island of Sphacteria, off Pylos, in 425 BC, was highly unexpected. He wrote that "it was the common perception at the time that Spartans would never lay down their weapons for any reason, be it hunger, or danger."

Tradition states that the semi-mythical Spartan legislator Lycurgus first founded the iconic army.[2] Referring to Sparta as having a "wall of men, instead of bricks", he proposed to reform Spartan society to develop a military-focused lifestyle in accordance with "proper virtues" such as equality for the male citizens, austerity, strength, and fitness. A Spartan male's involvement with the army began in infancy when he was inspected by the Gerousia. Any baby judged weak or deformed was left at Mount Taygetus to die, since the world of the Spartans was no place for those who could not fend for themselves. (The practice of discarding children at birth took place in Athens as well.) Those deemed strong entered the agoge regime at the age of seven. Under the agoge the young boys or Spartiates underwent intense and rigorous military training.[3] Their education focused primarily on cunning, sports and war tactics, but also included poetry, music, academics, and sometimes politics. Those who passed the agoge by the age of 30 achieved full Spartan citizenship.

The term "spartan" became[when?] synonymous with fearlessness, harsh and cruel life, endurance or simplicity by design.[4]


Contents
1	History
1.1	Mycenaean age
1.2	Archaic Age and expansion
1.3	Establishment of Spartan hegemony over the Peloponnese
1.4	Persian and Peloponnesian Wars
1.5	End of Hegemony
2	Army organization
2.1	Social structure
2.2	Tactical structure
2.2.1	The kings and the hippeis
3	Training
4	The army on campaign
4.1	Tactics
4.2	On the march
5	Clothing, arms, and armor
5.1	Classical period
5.2	Hellenistic period
6	Philosophy, education, and the Spartan code
6.1	Spartan philosophy
6.2	Spartan education
6.3	Spartan code of honor
7	Spartan navy
8	Wars and battles
8.1	Messenian Wars
8.2	Wars with Argos
8.3	Persian Wars
8.4	Peloponnesian War
8.5	The Corinthian War
8.6	The Boeotian War
8.7	Chremonidean War
8.8	The Cleomenean War
8.9	War against Nabis
9	In popular culture
10	See also
11	Notes and references
12	Sources
History
Mycenaean age
Further information: Mycenaean Greece
The first reference to the Spartans at war is in the Iliad, in which they featured among the other Greek contingents. Like the rest of the Mycenaean-era armies, it was depicted as composed largely of infantry, equipped with short swords, spears, and Dipylon-type ("8"-shaped simple round bronze shields). This was the Golden Age of Warfare.

Each opposing army tried to fight through the other line on the right (strong or deep) side and then turn left; wherefore they would be able to attack the vulnerable flank. When this happened, it as a rule caused the army to be routed. The fleeing enemy were put to the sword only as far as the field of battle extended. The outcome of this one battle would determine the outcome of a particular issue. In the Golden Age of War defeated armies were not massacred; they fled back to their city and conceded superiority to the victors. It wasn't until after the Peloponnesus War that indiscriminate slaughter, enslavement and depredations were countenanced among the Greeks.[citation needed]

War chariots were used by the elite, but unlike their counterparts in the Middle East, they appear to have been used for transport, with the warrior dismounting to fight on foot and then remounting to withdraw from combat, although some accounts show warriors throwing their spear from the chariot before dismounting.[5]

Archaic Age and expansion

Marble statue of a helmed hoplite (5th century BC), possibly Leonidas (Archaeological Museum of Sparta, Greece)
Mycenaean Sparta, like much of Greece, was engulfed in the Dorian invasions, which ended the Mycenaean civilization and ushered in the so-called "Greek Dark Ages". During this time, Sparta (or Lacedaemon) was merely a Doric village on the banks of the river Eurotas in Laconia. However, in the early 8th century BC, Spartan society was transformed. The reforms, which were ascribed by later tradition to the possibly mythical figure of Lycurgus, created new institutions and established the military nature of the Spartan state.[6] This "constitution of Lycurgus" remained essentially unchanged for five centuries.[6] From ca. 750 BC, Sparta embarked on a steady expansion, first by subduing Amyclae and the other settlements of Laconia, and later, in the First Messenian War, conquering the fertile country of Messenia. By the beginning of the 7th century BC, Sparta was, along with Argos, the dominant power in the Peloponnese.

Establishment of Spartan hegemony over the Peloponnese
Inevitably, these two powers collided. Initial Argive successes, such as the victory at the Battle of Hysiae in 669 BC, led to an uprising of the Messenians, which tied down the Spartan army for almost 20 years.[7] Over the course of the 6th century, Sparta secured her control of the Peloponnese peninsula: Arcadia was forced to recognize Spartan overlordship; Argos lost Cynuria (the SE coast of the Peloponnese) in about 546 and suffered a further crippling blow from Cleomenes I at the Battle of Sepeia in 494, while repeated expeditions against tyrannical regimes throughout Greece greatly raised their prestige.[8] By the early 5th century, Sparta was the unchallenged master in southern Greece, as the leading power (hegemon) of the newly established Peloponnesian League (which was more characteristically known to its contemporaries as "the Lacedaemonians and their allies").[9]

Persian and Peloponnesian Wars

Greek hoplite besting a Persian, on the tondo of a kylix drinking cup from the 5th century BC (National Archaeological Museum of Athens)
By the late 6th century BC, Sparta was recognized as the preeminent Greek city-state. King Croesus of Lydia established an alliance with the Spartans,[10] and later, the Greek cities of Asia Minor appealed to them for help during the Ionian Revolt.[10] In the second Persian invasion of Greece, under Xerxes, Sparta was assigned the overall leadership of Greek forces on land and at sea. The Spartans played a crucial role in the repulsion of the invasion, notably at the battles of Thermopylae and Plataea. In the aftermath, however, due to the plottings of Pausanias with the Persians and their unwillingness to campaign too far from home, the Spartans withdrew into a relative isolation, leaving the rising power of Athens to lead the continued effort against the Persians. This isolationist tendency was further reinforced by the revolts of some of her allies and a great earthquake in 464, which was followed by a large scale revolt of the Messenian helots.[8]

The parallel rise of Athens as a major power in Greece led to friction with Sparta, and to two large-scale conflicts, (the First and Second Peloponnesian Wars), which devastated Greece. Sparta suffered several defeats during these wars, including, for the first time, the surrender of an entire Spartan unit at Sphacteria in 425 BC, but ultimately emerged victorious, primarily through the aid it received from the Persians. Under its admiral Lysander, the Persian-funded Peloponnesian fleet captured the cities of the Athenian alliance, and a decisive naval victory at Aegospotami forced Athens to capitulate.[8] The Athenian defeat left Sparta and its military forces in a dominant position in Greece.

End of Hegemony
Further information: Spartan hegemony
Spartan ascendancy did not last long. By the end of the 5th century BC, Sparta had suffered serious casualties in the Peloponnesian Wars, and its conservative and narrow mentality alienated many of its former allies. At the same time, its military class - the Spartiate caste - was in decline for several reasons:

Population decline due to Sparta's frequent wars in the late 5th century. Since Spartiates were required to marry late, birth rates remained low, making it difficult to replace their losses.
One could be demoted from Spartiate status for a number of reasons such as cowardice in battle or the inability to pay for membership in the syssitia. Inability to pay became such an increasingly severe problem because commercial activity had started to develop in Sparta. Because of this, commerce had become uncontrollable, leading to the complete ban of commerce in Sparta. This led to lesser ways of earning income; consequently, some Spartiates had to sell the land from which they drew their income. As the constitution made no provisions for promotion to Spartiate caste, numbers gradually dwindled.
As Sparta's military power waned, Thebes repeatedly challenged its authority. The ensuing Corinthian War led to the humiliating Peace of Antalcidas that destroyed Sparta's reputation as the protector of the independence of Greek city-states. At the same time, Spartan military prestige suffered a severe blow when a mora of 600 men was decimated by peltasts (light troops) under the command of the Athenian general Iphicrates. Spartan authority finally collapsed after their disastrous defeat at the Battle of Leuctra by the Thebans commanded by Epaminondas in 371 BC. The battle, in which large numbers of Spartiates were killed, resulted in the loss of the fertile Messenia region.

Army organization
Social structure
"... the allies of the Lacedaemonians were offended at Agesilaus, because ... they themselves [provided] so many [soldiers], and the Lacedaemonians, whom they followed, so few. ... Agesilaus, wishing to refute their argument with numbers ... ordered all the allies to sit down by themselves promiscuously, the Lacedaemonians apart by themselves. Then his herald called upon the potters to stand up first, and after them the smiths, next, the carpenters in their turn, and the builders, and so on through all the handicrafts. In response, almost all the allies rose up, but not a man of the Lacedaemonians; for they were forbidden to learn or practice a manual art. Then Agesilaus said with a laugh: 'You see, O men, how many more soldiers than you we are sending out.'"
Plutarch, The Life of Agesilaus, 26
The Spartan people (the "Lacedaemonians") were divided into three classes:

Full citizens, known as the Spartiates proper, or Hómoioi ("equals" or peers), who received a grant of land (kláros or klēros, "lot") for their military service.
Perioeci (the "dwellers nearby"), free non-citizens, generally merchants, craftsmen and sailors, who were used as light infantry and on auxiliary roles on campaign.[9]
The third and most numerous class were the Helots, state-owned serfs used to farm the Spartiate klēros. By the 5th century BC, the helots, too, were used as light troops in skirmishes.[1]
The Spartiates were the core of the Spartan army: they participated in the Assembly (Apella) and provided the hoplites in the army. Indeed, they were supposed to be soldiers and nothing else, being forbidden to learn and exercise any other trade.[1] To a large degree, the constant war footing of Spartan society was needed to keep the vastly more numerous helots subdued.[11] One of the major problems of later Spartan society was the steady decline in fully enfranchised citizens, which also meant a decline in available military manpower: the number of Spartiates decreased from 6,000 in 640 BC to 1,000 in 330 BC.[12] The Spartans were therefore forced to use helot hoplites, and occasionally they freed some of the Laconian helots, the neodamōdeis (the "newly enfranchised"), and gave them land to settle in exchange for military service.[13]

The Spartiate population was subdivided into age groups. The youngest at 20 were counted as weaker due to lack of experience, and the oldest, up to 60 or in a crisis 65, were only called up in an emergency, to defend the baggage train.

Tactical structure

Spartan helmet on display at the British Museum. The helmet has been damaged and the top has sustained a blow, presumably from a battle.
The principal source for the organization of the Spartan Army is Xenophon, who admired the Spartans and whose Constitution of Sparta offers a detailed overview of the Spartan state and society at the beginning of the 4th century BC. Other authors, notably Thucydides, also provide information, but it is not always as reliable as Xenophon's first-hand accounts.[14]

Little is known of the earlier organisation, and much is left open to speculation. The earliest form of social and military organization (during the 7th century BC) seems to have been the three tribes (phylai: the Pamphyloi, Hylleis and Dymanes), who appear in the Second Messenian War (685–668 BC). A further subdivision was the "fraternity" (phratra), of which 27, or nine per tribe, are recorded.[15] Eventually this system was replaced by five territorial divisions, the obai ("villages"), which supplied a lochos of ca. 1,000 men each.[16] This system was still used during the Persian Wars, as implied by references to the lochoi made by Herodotus in his history.[17]

The changes that occurred between the Persian and the Peloponnesian Wars are not documented, but according to Thucydides, at Mantinea in 418 BC there were 7 lochoi present, each subdivided into four pentekostyes of 128 men, which were further subdivided into four enōmotiai of 32 men, giving a total of 3,584 men for the main Spartan army.[18] By the end of the Peloponnesian War, the structure had evolved further, both to address the shortages in manpower and to create a more flexible system that allowed the Spartans to send smaller detachments on campaign or to garrisons outside their homeland.[19] According to Xenophon, the basic Spartan unit remained the enōmotia, with 36 men in three files of twelve under an enōmotarches.[20] Two enōmotiai formed a pentēkostys of 72 men under a pentēkontēr, and two pentēkostyai were grouped into a lochos of 144 men under a lochagos. Four lochoi formed a mora of 576 men under a polemarchos, the largest single tactical unit of the Spartan army.[21] Six morai composed the Spartan army on campaign, to which were added the Skiritai and the contingents of allied states.

The kings and the hippeis

Areus I, a Spartan king during the Chremonidean War, on a coin (310–266 BC)
The full army was normally led in battle by the two kings; initially, both went on campaign, but after the 6th century BC only one, with the other remaining at home.[6] Unlike other states, their authority was severely circumscribed; actual power rested with the five elected ephoroi.[1] The kings were accompanied by a select group of 300 men as a royal guard, who were termed hippeis ("cavalrymen"). Despite their title, they were infantry hoplites like all Spartiatai. Indeed, the Spartans did not utilize a cavalry of their own until late into the Peloponnesian War, when small units of 60 cavalrymen were attached to each mora.[21] The hippeis belonged to the first mora and were the elite of the Spartan army, being deployed on the honorary right side of the battle line. They were selected every year by specially commissioned officials, the hippagretai, from among experienced men who had sons, so that their line would continue.[17]

Training
Further information: Agoge
"Ὦ ξεῖν’, ἀγγέλλειν Λακεδαιμονίοις ὅτι τῇδε
κείμεθα, τοῖς κείνων ῥήμασι πειθόμενοι."
"Go tell the Spartans, thou that passest by, that here,
obedient to their laws, we lie."
Simonides of Ceos, Epitaph on the burial mound of the Spartans who fell at Thermopylae[22]
At first, in the archaic period of 700–600 BC, education for both sexes was, as in most Greek states, centred on the arts, with the male citizen population later receiving military education. However, from the 6th century onwards, the military character of the state became more pronounced, and education was totally subordinated to the needs of the military.[23]

Both boys and girls were brought up by the city women until the age of seven, when boys (paidia) were taken from their mothers and grouped together in "packs" (agelai) and were sent to what is almost equivalent to present-day military boot camp. This military camp was known as the Agoge. They became inured to hardship, being provided with scant food and clothing; this also encouraged them to steal, and if they were caught, they were punished – not for stealing, but for being caught.[11] There is a characteristic story, told by Plutarch: "The boys make such a serious matter of their stealing, that one of them, as the story goes, who was carrying concealed under his cloak a young fox which he had stolen, suffered the animal to tear out his bowels with its teeth and claws, and died rather than have his theft detected."[24] The boys were encouraged to compete against one another in games and mock fights and to foster an esprit de corps. In addition, they were taught to read and write and learned the songs of Tyrtaios, that celebrated Spartan exploits in the Second Messenian War. They learned to read and write not for cultural reasons, but so they could be able to read military maps.[25] At the age of twelve, a boy was classed as a "youth" (meirakion). His physical education was intensified, discipline became much harsher, and the boys were loaded with extra tasks. The youths had to go barefoot, and were dressed only in a tunic both in summer and in winter.[11]

Adulthood was reached at the age of 18, and the young adult (eiren) initially served as a trainer for the boys. At the same time, the most promising youths were included in the Krypteia. At 20, Spartans became eligible for military service and joined one of the messes (syssitia), which included 15 men of various ages.[26] Those who were rejected retained a lesser form of citizenship, as only the soldiers were ranked among the homoioi. However, even after that, and even during marriage and until about the age of 30, they would spend most of their day in the barracks with their unit. Military duty lasted until the 60th year, but there are recorded cases of older people participating in campaigns in times of crisis.[15]

Throughout their adult lives, the Spartiates continued to be subject to a training regime so strict that, as Plutarch says, "... they were the only men in the world with whom war brought a respite in the training for war."[27] Bravery was the ultimate virtue for the Spartans: Spartan mothers would give their sons the shield with the words "[Return] With it or [carried] on it!" (Ἢ τὰν ἢ ἐπὶ τᾶς),[28] that is to say, either victorious or dead, since in battle, the heavy hoplite shield would be the first thing a fleeing soldier would be tempted to abandon –- rhipsaspia, "dropping the shield", was a synonym for desertion in the field.[29]

The army on campaign
Tactics

Modern reconstruction of a phalanx advancing in close ranks.
Further information: Phalanx formation
Like the armies of the other Greek states, the Spartan army was an infantry-based army that fought using the phalanx formation. The Spartans themselves did not introduce any significant changes or tactical innovations in hoplite warfare, but their constant drill and superb discipline made their phalanx much more cohesive and effective. The Spartans employed the phalanx in the classical style in a single line, uniformly deep in files of 8 to 12 men. When fighting alongside their allies, the Spartans would normally occupy the honorary right flank. If, as usually happened, the Spartans achieved victory on their side, they would then wheel left and roll up the enemy formation.[30]

During the Peloponnesian War, engagements became more fluid, light troops became increasingly used and tactics evolved to meet them, but in direct confrontations between two opposing phalanxes, stamina and "pushing ability" were what counted.[31] It was only when the Thebans, under Epaminondas increased the depth of a part of their formation at the Battle of Leuctra that the Spartan phalanx broke.

On the march
According to Xenophon, the army was mobilized by the ephors, and after a series of religious ceremonies and sacrifices, the army assembled and set out.[32] The army proceeded led by the king, with the skiritai and cavalry detachments acting as an advance guard and scouting parties.[33] The necessary provisions (barley, cheese, onions and salted meat) were carried along with the army, and each Spartan was accompanied by a helot manservant.[34] Each mora marched and camped separately, with its own baggage train.[35] Sacrifice was given every morning and before battle by the king and the officers; if the omens were not favourable, a pious leader might refuse to march or to engage the enemy.[36]

Clothing, arms, and armor
The Spartans used the same typical hoplite equipment as the other Greek neighbors; the only distinctive Spartan features were the crimson tunic (chitōn) and cloak (himation),[37] and long hair, which the Spartans retained to a far later date than most Greeks. To the Spartans, long hair retained its older Archaic meaning as the symbol of a free man; to the other Greeks, by the 5th century, its peculiar association with the Spartans had come to signify pro-Spartan sympathies.[38]

Classical period
The letter lambda (Λ), standing for Laconia or Lacedaemon, which was painted on the Spartans' shields, was first adopted in the 420s BC, and quickly became a widely known Spartan symbol.[39] Military families passed on their shields to each generation as family heirlooms. The technical evolution and design of Spartan shields evolved from bashing and shield wall tactics, and were of such great importance in the Spartan army that while losing a sword and a spear was an exception, to lose a shield was a sign of disgrace. Not only does it protect the user, but it also protects the whole phalanx formation. To come home without the shield was the mark of a deserter; rhipsaspia or "dropping the shield", was a synonym for desertion in the field. Mothers bidding farewell to their sons would encourage them to come back with their shields, often saying goodbyes like "Son, either with this or on this" (Ἢ τὰν ἢ ἐπὶ τᾶς), meaning they should return only in victory, a controlled retreat, or death, their body being carried on the shield.[40][41]

Spartan hoplites were often depicted bearing a transverse horsehair crest on their helmet, which was possibly used to identify officers.[42] In the Archaic period, Spartans were armored with flanged bronze cuirasses, leg greaves, and a helmet, often of the Corinthian type. It is often disputed which torso armor the Spartans wore during the Persian Wars, though it seems likely they either continued to wear bronze cuirasses of a more sculptured type, or instead had adopted the linothōrax. During the later 5th century BC, when warfare had become more flexible and full-scale phalanx confrontations became rarer, the Greeks abandoned most forms of body armor. The Lacedaemonians also adopted a new tunic, the exōmis, which could be arranged so that it left the right arm and shoulder uncovered and free for action in combat.[43]

The Spartan's main weapon was the dory spear. For long range, they carried a javelin. The Spartiates were always armed with a xiphos as a secondary weapon. Among most Greek warriors, this weapon had an iron blade of about 60 centimeters; however, the Spartan version was typically only 30-45 centimetres. The Spartans' shorter weapon proved deadly in the crush caused by colliding phalanxes formations – it was capable of being thrust through gaps in the enemy's shield wall and armor, where there was no room for longer weapons. The groin and throat were among the favorite targets. In one account, an Athenian asked a Spartan why his sword was so short and after a short pause he replied, "It's long enough to reach your heart." In another, a Spartan complained to his mother that the sword was short, to which she simply told him to step closer to the enemy. As an alternative to the xiphos, some Spartans selected the kopis as their secondary weapon. Unlike the xiphos, which is a thrusting weapon, the kopis was a hacking weapon in the form of a thick, curved iron sword. In Athenian art, Spartan hoplites were often depicted using a kopis instead of the xiphos, as the kopis was seen as a quintessential "bad guys" weapon in Greek eyes.[44] The Spartans retained the traditional hoplite phalanx until the reforms of Cleomenes III, when they were re-equipped with the Macedonian sarissa and trained in the style of the phalanx.

Spartans trained in pankration, a famous martial art in Ancient Greece that consisted of boxing and grappling. Spartans were so adept in pankration that, when it was inducted in the Olympic Games, they were mostly forbidden to compete.[citation needed]

Hellenistic period
During the Hellenistic period Spartan equipment evolved drastically. Since the early 5th century BC the pilos helmet had become almost standard within the Spartan army, being in use by the Spartans until the end of the Classical era. Also after the "Iphicratean reforms" peltasts became a much more common sight on the Greek battlefield and themselves became more heavily armed. In response to Iphicrates' victory over Sparta in 392 BC, Spartan hoplites started abandoning body armour and eventually wore almost no armour apart from a shield, leg greaves, bracelets, helmet and a robe. In later periods Spartans did start to readopt armour, but on a much lesser scale than during the Archaic period. Finally during 227 BC, Cleomenes' reforms introduced updated equipment to Sparta, including the Macedonian sarissa (pike). However pike-men armed with the sarissa never outnumbered troops equipped in the hoplite style. It was also in that time Sparta adopted its own cavalry and archers.

Philosophy, education, and the Spartan code
Further information: Laconic phrase

The Spartan philosopher Lycurgus, from a series of marble reliefs depicting the great lawgivers of history, at the chamber of the U.S. House of Representatives
Spartan philosophy
Contrary to popular belief, Spartans valued knowledge and education more than the Athenians did.[45] Spartan philosophers include Lycurgus and Chilon of Sparta. Although Athens has been praised as the "inventor" of democracy and philosophy, Sparta often has been viewed in popular culture as a society characterized by brutal, mindless discipline and merciless emphasis on physical fitness.[citation needed] Sparta, however, had its own democratic government. In the Appella or Demos as early as 700 BC, Spartans elect leaders and voted by range voting and shouting. Every male age 30 and above could participate. Aristotle called the Spartan electoral process "childish" in contrast to the stone ballots cast by the Athenians. Sparta adopted its procedure for the sake of simplicity, and to prevent any bias voting, bribing, or cheating that was predominant in the early democratic elections.[46]

Spartan education
The Spartan public education system, the agoge, trained the mind as well as the body. Spartans were not only literate, but admired for their intellectual culture and poetry. Socrates said the "most ancient and fertile homes of philosophy among the Greeks are Crete and Sparta, where are found more sophists than anywhere on earth."[47] Public education was provided for girls as well as boys, and consequently literacy rate was higher in Sparta than in other Greek city-states.[48] In education, sports was given the most emphasis in teaching.[48]

Self-discipline, not kadavergehorsam (mindless obedience) was the goal of Spartan education. Sparta placed the values of liberty, equality, and fraternity at the center of their ethical system. These values applied to every full Spartan citizen, immigrant, merchant, and even to the helots, but not to the dishonored. Helots are unique in the history of slavery in that unlike traditional slaves, they were allowed to keep and gain wealth. They could keep half their agricultural produce and presumably sell it; thus accumulating wealth. There are known to have been some occasions that a helot with enough money was allowed to purchase their freedom from the state.[49]


Mythological scene inside a black-figure cup (550–540 BC) by the Spartan artist known as the Rider Painter
Spartan code of honor
The Spartan hoplite followed a strict laconic code of honor. No soldier was considered superior to another.[48] Suicidal recklessness, berserkery, and rage were prohibited in a Spartan army, as these behaviors endangered the phalanx. Recklessness could lead to dishonor, as in the case of Aristodemus.[50] Spartans regarded those who fight, while still wishing to live, as more valorous than those who don't care if they die.[50] They believed that a warrior must not fight with raging anger, but with calmed determination.[51] By the laconic way of life, Spartans must walk without any noise, and speak only with few words.[48] Other ways for Spartans to be dishonored were dropping the shield (rhipsaspia), failing to complete the training, and deserting in battle. Dishonored Spartans were labeled outcasts, and were forced to wear different clothing for public humiliation.[48] In battle, stories of valor were told to inspire troops and, before a major confrontation, they sang soft songs to calm the nerves.[52]

Spartan navy

Model of a Greek trireme from the Deutsches Museum, Munich
Throughout their history, the Spartans were a land based force par excellence. During the Persian Wars, they contributed a small navy of 20 triremes, and provided the overall fleet commander, but they largely relied on their allies, primarily the Corinthians, for naval power. This fact meant that, when the Peloponnesian War broke out, the Spartans were supreme on land, but the Athenians supreme at sea. The Spartans repeatedly ravaged Attica, but the Athenians kept being supplied by sea, and were able to stage raids of their own around the Peloponnese with their navy. Eventually, it was the creation of a navy that enabled Sparta to overcome Athens. With Persian gold, Lysander, appointed navarch in 407 BC, was able to master a strong navy, and successfully challenge and destroy Athenian predominance in the Aegean Sea.[8] The Spartan engagement with the sea would be short-lived, however, and did not survive the turmoils of the Corinthian War: in the Battle of Cnidus of 394 BC, the Spartan navy was decisively defeated by a joint Athenian-Persian fleet, marking the end of Sparta's brief naval supremacy. The final blow would be given 20 years later, at the Battle of Naxos in 376 BC. A small fleet was periodically maintained thereafter, but its effectiveness was limited; the last revival of Spartan naval power was under Nabis, who, with aid from his Cretan allies, created a fleet to control the Laconian coastline.

The fleet was commanded by navarchs, who were appointed for a strictly one-year term, and apparently could not be reappointed. The admirals were subordinated to the vice-admiral, called epistoleus. This position is seemingly independent of the one-year term clause, because it was used, in 405 B.C. to give Lysander command of the fleet after he was already an admiral for a year.

Wars and battles
Messenian Wars
Dates	Battle	Allies	Opponents	Outcome
743 BC – 724 BC	First Messenian War	Sparta	Messenia	Spartan Victory
685 BC – 668 BC	Second Messenian War	Sparta	Messenia	Spartan Victory
Wars with Argos
Dates	Battle	Allies	Opponents	Outcome
669 BC – 668 BC	First Battle of Hysiae	Sparta	Argos	Spartan Victory
494 BC	Battle of Sepeia	Sparta	Argos	Spartan Victory
Persian Wars
Thermopylae
Artemisium
Salamis
Plataea
Mycale
Marathon
Peloponnesian War
Sybota
Potidaea
Chalcis
Rhium
Naupactus
Mytilene
Tanagra
Olpae
Pylos
Sphacteria
Amphipolis
First Mantinea
Sicilian Expedition
Syme
Cynossema
Abydos
Cyzicus
Notium
Arginusae
Aegospotami
The Corinthian War
Dates	Battle	Allies	Opponents	Outcome
395 BC	Battle of Haliartus	Sparta	Thebes	Spartan Defeat
394 BC	Battle of Nemea	Sparta	Argos
Athens
Corinth
Thebes	Spartan Victory
394 BC	Battle of Cnidus	Sparta	Athens
Achaemenid Empire	Spartan Defeat
394 BC	Battle of Coronea	Sparta
Orchomenus	Argos
Thebes	Spartan Victory
390 BC	Battle of Lechaeum	Sparta	Athens	Spartan Defeat
The Boeotian War
Dates	Battle	Allies	Opponents	Outcome
376 BC	Battle of Naxos	Sparta	Athens	Spartan Defeat
July 6, 371 BC	Battle of Leuctra	Sparta	Boeotian League (Thebes)	Spartan Defeat
July 4, 362 BC	Second Battle of Mantinea	Sparta
Athens
Elis
Mantineia League	Arcadia
Boeotian League
Thebes	Spartan Defeat
Chremonidean War
The Cleomenean War
Dates	Battle	Allies	Opponents	Outcome
227 BC	Battle of Mount Lycaeum	Sparta	Achaean League	Spartan Victory
227 BC	Battle of Ladoceia	Sparta	Achaean League	Spartan Victory
226 BC	Battle of Dyme	Sparta	Achaean League	Spartan Victory
222 BC	Battle of Sellasia	Sparta	Achaean League
Macedon	Spartan Defeat
War against Nabis
Dates	Battle	Allies	Opponents	Outcome
195 BC	Battle of Gythium	Sparta	Achaean League
Macedon
Pergamon
Rhodes
Rome	Spartan Defeat
In popular culture

A Spartan cosplay during the DragonCon Parade in Atlanta in 2007
Main article: Sparta in popular culture
Further information: Battle of Thermopylae in popular culture
In the Halo universe, the SPARTAN program is a project designed to produce genetically augmented, power armored supersoldiers. The SPARTANs serve as the protagonists of several works and as major characters in many others; the main character of the Halo trilogy is John-117, a SPARTAN-II supersoldier, and the protagonist of Halo: Reach is SPARTAN-B312, a SPARTAN-III supersoldier. Twice in the novel Halo: Ghosts of Onyx, companies of 300 SPARTAN-IIIs are sent against numerically superior Covenant forces and succeed in their objective, but suffer almost 100% casualty rates, similar to the Battle of Thermopylae.
The Gates of Fire, a novel by Steven Pressfield, which provides a gritty, first-person account of the Battle of Thermopylae from the view of a Helot.
300, a graphic novel and a movie based on the graphic novel, both interpreting the Battle of Thermopylae.
Many colleges and universities have the Spartan as a school mascot, some of which include Michigan State University (see also Sparty, Michigan State's costumed mascot), Case Western Reserve University, and San Jose State University. The Spartan South Midlands Football League is an English football league named after them.
Kratos, the main protagonist in God of War is a legendary Spartan demigod warrior and hero who also served the Spartan army as a high-ranking officer.
A number of military aircraft have been named after the Spartans, including the Alenia C-27J Spartan, C-27A Spartan, and the Simmonds Spartan.
On Season 1 of the television program Deadliest Warrior, the Spartan defeated the Ninja while in Season 2, the Spartan was brought back to defeat the Samurai.
The Spartan army is the inspiration for a popular branded Obstacle Race, Spartan Race.
The 2018 video game Assassin's Creed Odyssey depicts Sparta during the Peloponnesian War.
See also
List of Spartan kings
Scytale
Cryptia
Clearchus of Sparta
Xanthippus of Carthage
Homosexuality in the militaries of Ancient Greece
Notes and references
 Connolly (2006), p. 38
 Plutarch, The Life of Lycurgus (written 75, trans. John Dryden 9999), The Internet Classics Archive
 Hodkinson, Stephen (1996). "Agoge". In Hornblower, Simon (ed.). Oxford Classical Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
 Compare: Oxford Dictionary: "Showing or characterized by austerity or a lack of comfort or luxury".
 Warry (2004), pp. 14–15.
 Sekunda (1998), p. 4.
 Sekunda (1998), pp. 6–7
 Sekunda (1998), p. 7.
 Connolly (2006), p. 11.
 Holland, Tom. Persian Fire: The First World Empire and the Battle for the West. Anchor. ISBN 0-307-27948-0.
 Connolly (2006), p. 39
 Lane Fox, Robin. The Classical World: An Epic History from Homer to Hadrian. Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-02496-3.
 Sekunda (1998), pp. 16–17
 Connolly (2006), pp. 38–39
 Sekunda (1998), p. 13.
 Sekunda (1998), p. 14
 Connolly (2006), p. 41.
 Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War 5.68.2
 Sekunda (1998), p. 15.
 Until the late 5th century, however, each file seems to have had a depth of only 8 men. Connolly (2006), p. 40
 Connolly (2006), p. 40.
 Herodotus, 7.228.1
 Encyclopædia Britannica 15th Edition
 Plutarch, The Life of Lycurgus, 18.1
 Sekunda (1998), pp. 10–11
 Sekunda (1998), p. 12
 Plutarch, The Life of Lycurgus, 22.2
 Plutarch, Moralia, Sayings of Spartan Women 241.F
 Miller, William Ian (2002). The mystery of courage. Harvard University Press. p. 98. ISBN 978-0-674-00826-7.
 Sekunda (1998), p. 19.
 "Spartan armor". Marvel Comics. July 16, 2012. Retrieved May 9, 2018.
 Sekunda (1998), p. 17.
 Sekunda (1998), p. 18
 Connolly (2006), p. 44.
 Connolly (2006), pp. 46–47.
 Connolly (2006), p. 47.
 Sekunda (1998), p. 20
 Sekunda (1998), p. 24.
 Sekunda (1998), p. 27; disputed by Campbell (2012)
 Spartan Quotes
 History of the Spartan Shield (ERRONEOUS LINK?)
 Sekunda (1986), pp.3 & 6.
 Sekunda (1998), p. 21.
 Spartan Weaponry
 Soriano (2005), pp. 84–85.
 Full historical description of the Spartan government
 Plato, Protagoras, 343b:366.
 Soriano (2005), p. 85.
 Cleomenes III in 223/2 BC allowed Helots to become free by paying 500 drachmas; 6000 helots paid.
 Schmitz vol 1. p304
 Soriano (2005), pp. 87–89
 Soriano (2005), pp. 90–91.
Sources
Campbell, Duncan B (2012). Spartan Warrior (Warrior Series #163). Osprey Publications. ISBN 978-1-84908-700-1.
Connolly, Peter (2006). Greece and Rome at War. Greenhill Books. ISBN 978-1-85367-303-0.
Lazenby, John (1985). The Spartan Army. Aris & Phillips Ltd. ISBN 0-86516-115-1.
Sekunda, Nicholas (1986). The Ancient Greeks: Armies of Classical Greece, 5th and 4th Centuries BC (Elite Series #7). Osprey Publications. ISBN 0-85045-686-X.
Sekunda, Nicholas (1998). The Spartan Army (Elite Series #60). Osprey Publications. ISBN 1-85532-659-0.
Soriano, Celia (2005). Kayamanan III: History of the World (2005 Ed). Rex Bookstore, Inc. ISBN 971-23-4042-2.
Warry, John (2004). Warfare in the Classical World. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-2794-5.
Categories: Military history of SpartaSpartan armyWarrior code
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Taj Mahal
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Taj Mahal
Taj Mahal (Edited).jpeg
Location	Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India
Coordinates	27°10′30″N 78°02′31″ECoordinates: 27°10′30″N 78°02′31″E
Area	17 hectares[1]
Height	73 m (240 ft)
Built	1632–53[2]
Built for	Mumtaz Mahal
Architect	Ustad Ahmad Lahauri
Architectural style(s)	Mughal architecture
Visitors	7–8 million[3] (in 2014)
Governing body	Government of India
Website	www.tajmahal.gov.in
Taj Mahal is located in Uttar PradeshTaj Mahal
Location of Taj Mahal in Uttar Pradesh
Show map of Uttar Pradesh
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UNESCO World Heritage Site
Criteria	Cultural: i
Reference	252
Inscription	1983 (7th Session)
The Taj Mahal (/ˌtɑːdʒ məˈhɑːl, ˌtɑːʒ-/;[4] Arabic: تاج محل‎, lit. 'Place or Position of the Crown', Hindi: ताज महल, lit. 'Crown of the Palaces' [taːdʒ ˈmɛːɦ(ə)l])[5] is an ivory-white marble mausoleum on the south bank of the Yamuna river in the Indian city of Agra. It was commissioned in 1632 by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan (reigned from 1628 to 1658) to house the tomb of his favourite wife, Mumtaz Mahal; it also houses the tomb of Shah Jahan himself. The tomb is the centrepiece of a 17-hectare (42-acre) complex, which includes a mosque and a guest house, and is set in formal gardens bounded on three sides by a crenellated wall.

Construction of the mausoleum was essentially completed in 1643, but work continued on other phases of the project for another 10 years. The Taj Mahal complex is believed to have been completed in its entirety in 1653 at a cost estimated at the time to be around 32 million rupees, which in 2015 would be approximately 52.8 billion rupees (U.S. $827 million). The construction project employed some 20,000 artisans under the guidance of a board of architects led by the court architect to the emperor, Ustad Ahmad Lahauri.

The Taj Mahal was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983 for being "the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage". It is regarded by many as the best example of Mughal architecture and a symbol of India's rich history. The Taj Mahal attracts 7–8 million visitors a year and in 2007, it was declared a winner of the New7Wonders of the World (2000–2007) initiative.


Contents
1	Inspiration
2	Architecture and design
2.1	Tomb
2.2	Exterior decorations
2.3	Interior decoration
2.4	Garden
2.5	Outlying buildings
3	Construction
4	Later days
5	Threats
6	Tourism
7	Myths
8	Controversies
9	Gallery
10	See also
11	References
11.1	Notes
11.2	Sources
12	External links
Inspiration
The Taj Mahal was commissioned by Shah Jahan in 1631, to be built in the memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal, a Persian princess who died on 17 June that year, giving birth to their 14th child, Gauhara Begum.[6][7] Construction started in 1632,[8] and the mausoleum was completed in 1643, while the surrounding buildings and garden were finished five years later.[9] The imperial court documenting Shah Jahan's grief after the death of Mumtaz Mahal illustrates the love story held as the inspiration for the Taj Mahal.[10]

Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal

"Shah Jahan on a globe" from the Smithsonian Institution

 

Artistic depiction of Mumtaz Mahal

Architecture and design
Main article: Origins and architecture of the Taj Mahal
The Taj Mahal incorporates and expands on design traditions of Persian and earlier Mughal architecture. Specific inspiration came from successful Timurid and Mughal buildings including the Gur-e Amir (the tomb of Timur, progenitor of the Mughal dynasty, in Samarkand),[11] Humayun's Tomb, Itmad-Ud-Daulah's Tomb (sometimes called the Baby Taj), and Shah Jahan's own Jama Masjid in Delhi. While earlier Mughal buildings were primarily constructed of red sandstone, Shah Jahan promoted the use of white marble inlaid with semi-precious stones. Buildings under his patronage reached new levels of refinement.[12]

Tomb
The tomb is the central focus of the entire complex of the Taj Mahal. It is a large, white marble structure standing on a square plinth and consists of a symmetrical building with an iwan (an arch-shaped doorway) topped by a large dome and finial. Like most Mughal tombs, the basic elements are Persian in origin.[13]

The base structure is a large multi-chambered cube with chamfered corners forming an unequal eight-sided structure that is approximately 55 metres (180 ft) on each of the four long sides. Each side of the iwan is framed with a huge pishtaq or vaulted archway with two similarly shaped arched balconies stacked on either side. This motif of stacked pishtaqs is replicated on the chamfered corner areas, making the design completely symmetrical on all sides of the building. Four minarets frame the tomb, one at each corner of the plinth facing the chamfered corners. The main chamber houses the false sarcophagi of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan; the actual graves are at a lower level.[14]

Taj Mahal gallery

Taj Mahal at sunrise from Main Entrance.

 

Four minarets frame the tomb.

 

Interior view of the vaulted dome over the tombs of Shah Jahan and Mumtaz.

 

The false sarcophagi of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan in the main chamber.

 

The actual tombs of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan in the lower level.

 

Main marble dome, smaller domes, and decorative spires that extend from the edges of the base walls.

The most spectacular feature is the marble dome that surmounts the tomb. The dome is nearly 35 metres (115 ft) high which is close in measurement to the length of the base, and accentuated by the cylindrical "drum" it sits on which is approximately 7 metres (23 ft) high. Because of its shape, the dome is often called an onion dome or amrud (guava dome).[15] The top is decorated with a lotus design which also serves to accentuate its height. The shape of the dome is emphasised by four smaller domed chattris (kiosks) placed at its corners, which replicate the onion shape of the main dome. The dome is slightly asymmetrical.[16] Their columned bases open through the roof of the tomb and provide light to the interior. Tall decorative spires (guldastas) extend from edges of base walls, and provide visual emphasis to the height of the dome. The lotus motif is repeated on both the chattris and guldastas. The dome and chattris are topped by a gilded finial which mixes traditional Persian and Hindustani decorative elements.[17]

The main finial was originally made of gold but was replaced by a copy made of gilded bronze in the early 19th century. This feature provides a clear example of integration of traditional Persian and Hindu decorative elements.[18] The finial is topped by a moon, a typical Islamic motif whose horns point heavenward.[19]

The minarets, which are each more than 40 metres (130 ft) tall, display the designer's penchant for symmetry. They were designed as working minarets— a traditional element of mosques, used by the muezzin to call the Islamic faithful to prayer. Each minaret is effectively divided into three equal parts by two working balconies that ring the tower. At the top of the tower is a final balcony surmounted by a chattri that mirrors the design of those on the tomb. The chattris all share the same decorative elements of a lotus design topped by a gilded finial. The minarets were constructed slightly outside of the plinth so that in the event of collapse, a typical occurrence with many tall constructions of the period, the material from the towers would tend to fall away from the tomb.[citation needed]

Exterior decorations
The exterior decorations of the Taj Mahal are among the finest in Mughal architecture. As the surface area changes, the decorations are refined proportionally. The decorative elements were created by applying paint, stucco, stone inlays or carvings. In line with the Islamic prohibition against the use of anthropomorphic forms, the decorative elements can be grouped into either calligraphy, abstract forms or vegetative motifs. Throughout the complex are passages from the Qur'an that comprise some of the decorative elements. Recent scholarship suggests that Amanat Khan chose the passages.[20][21]

The calligraphy on the Great Gate reads "O Soul, thou art at rest. Return to the Lord at peace with Him, and He at peace with you."[21] The calligraphy was created in 1609 by a calligrapher named Abdul Haq. Shah Jahan conferred the title of "Amanat Khan" upon him as a reward for his "dazzling virtuosity."[22] Near the lines from the Qur'an at the base of the interior dome is the inscription, "Written by the insignificant being, Amanat Khan Shirazi."[23] Much of the calligraphy is composed of florid thuluth script made of jasper or black marble[22] inlaid in white marble panels. Higher panels are written in slightly larger script to reduce the skewing effect when viewed from below. The calligraphy found on the marble cenotaphs in the tomb is particularly detailed and delicate.[citation needed]

Abstract forms are used throughout, especially in the plinth, minarets, gateway, mosque, jawab and, to a lesser extent, on the surfaces of the tomb. The domes and vaults of the sandstone buildings are worked with tracery of incised painting to create elaborate geometric forms. Herringbone inlays define the space between many of the adjoining elements. White inlays are used in sandstone buildings, and dark or black inlays on the white marbles. Mortared areas of the marble buildings have been stained or painted in a contrasting colour which creates a complex array of geometric patterns. Floors and walkways use contrasting tiles or blocks in tessellation patterns.[citation needed]

On the lower walls of the tomb are white marble dados sculpted with realistic bas relief depictions of flowers and vines. The marble has been polished to emphasise the exquisite detailing of the carvings. The dado frames and archway spandrels have been decorated with pietra dura inlays of highly stylised, almost geometric vines, flowers and fruits. The inlay stones are of yellow marble, jasper and jade, polished and levelled to the surface of the walls.[22]

Detailed exterior design

Base, dome and minaret.

 

Finial, tamga of the Mughal Empire.

 

Calligraphy of Persian poems.

 

Plant motifs.

 

Reflective tiles.

 

Marble jali lattice.

 

Calligraphy of Arabic Ayaat.

Interior decoration
The interior chamber of the Taj Mahal reaches far beyond traditional decorative elements. The inlay work is not pietra dura, but a lapidary of precious and semiprecious gemstones.[24] The inner chamber is an octagon with the design allowing for entry from each face, although only the door facing the garden to the south is used. The interior walls are about 25 metres (82 ft) high and are topped by a "false" interior dome decorated with a sun motif. Eight pishtaq arches define the space at ground level and, as with the exterior, each lower pishtaq is crowned by a second pishtaq about midway up the wall.[25] The four central upper arches form balconies or viewing areas, and each balcony's exterior window has an intricate screen or jali cut from marble. In addition to the light from the balcony screens, light enters through roof openings covered by chattris at the corners. The octagonal marble screen or jali bordering the cenotaphs is made from eight marble panels carved through with intricate pierce work. The remaining surfaces are inlaid in delicate detail with semi-precious stones forming twining vines, fruits and flowers. Each chamber wall is highly decorated with dado bas-relief, intricate lapidary inlay and refined calligraphy panels which reflect, in little detail, the design elements seen throughout the exterior of the complex.[26]

Detailed interior design

Flowers carved in marble.

 

Detail of pietra dura jali inlay.

 

Delicacy of intricate pierce work.

 

Archways in the mosque.

 

Incised painting.

 

Finial floor tiling.

 

Detail of jali.

Muslim tradition forbids elaborate decoration of graves. Hence, the bodies of Mumtaz and Shah Jahan were put in a relatively plain crypt beneath the inner chamber with their faces turned right, towards Mecca. Mumtaz Mahal's cenotaph is placed at the precise centre of the inner chamber on a rectangular marble base of 1.5 by 2.5 metres (4 ft 11 in by 8 ft 2 in). Both the base and casket are elaborately inlaid with precious and semiprecious gems. Calligraphic inscriptions on the casket identify and praise Mumtaz. On the lid of the casket is a raised rectangular lozenge meant to suggest a writing tablet. Shah Jahan's cenotaph is beside Mumtaz's to the western side and is the only visible asymmetric element in the entire complex. His cenotaph is bigger than his wife's, but reflects the same elements: a larger casket on a slightly taller base precisely decorated with lapidary and calligraphy that identifies him. On the lid of the casket is a traditional sculpture of a small pen box.[25]

The pen box and writing tablet are traditional Mughal funerary icons decorating the caskets of men and women respectively. The Ninety Nine Names of God are calligraphic inscriptions on the sides of the actual tomb of Mumtaz Mahal. Other inscriptions inside the crypt include, "O Noble, O Magnificent, O Majestic, O Unique, O Eternal, O Glorious... ". The tomb of Shah Jahan bears a calligraphic inscription that reads; "He travelled from this world to the banquet-hall of Eternity on the night of the twenty-sixth of the month of Rajab, in the year 1076 Hijri."[27]

Garden

Walkways beside reflecting pool
The complex is set around a large 300-metre (980 ft) square charbagh or Mughal garden. The garden uses raised pathways that divide each of the four-quarters of the garden into 16 sunken parterres or flowerbeds. Halfway between the tomb and gateway in the centre of the garden is a raised marble water tank with a reflecting pool positioned on a north-south axis to reflect the image of the mausoleum. The elevated marble water tank is called al Hawd al-Kawthar in reference to the "Tank of Abundance" promised to Muhammad.[28]

Elsewhere, the garden is laid out with avenues of trees labeled according to common and scientific names[29] and fountains. The charbagh garden, a design inspired by Persian gardens, was introduced to India by Babur, the first Mughal emperor. It symbolises the four flowing rivers of Jannah (Paradise) and reflects the Paradise garden derived from the Persian paridaeza, meaning 'walled garden.' In mystic Islamic texts of the Mughal period, Paradise is described as an ideal garden of abundance with four rivers flowing from a central spring or mountain, separating the garden into north, west, south and east.[citation needed]

Most Mughal charbaghs are rectangular with a tomb or pavilion in the centre. The Taj Mahal garden is unusual in that the main element, the tomb, is located at the end of the garden. With the discovery of Mahtab Bagh or "Moonlight Garden" on the other side of the Yamuna, the interpretation of the Archaeological Survey of India is that the Yamuna river itself was incorporated into the garden's design and was meant to be seen as one of the rivers of Paradise.[30] Similarities in layout and architectural features with the Shalimar Gardens suggests both gardens may have been designed by the same architect, Ali Mardan.[31] Early accounts of the garden describe its profusion of vegetation, including abundant roses, daffodils, and fruit trees.[32] As the Mughal Empire declined, the Taj Mahal and its gardens also declined. By the end of the 19th century, the British Empire controlled more than three-fifths of India,[33] and assumed management of the Taj Mahal. They changed the landscaping to their liking which more closely resembled the formal lawns of London.[34]

Outlying buildings

The western building, a mosque, faces the tomb.
The Taj Mahal complex is bordered on three sides by crenellated red sandstone walls; the side facing the river is open. Outside the walls are several additional mausoleums, including those of Shah Jahan's other wives, and a larger tomb for Mumtaz's favourite servant.[35]

The main gateway (darwaza) is a monumental structure built primarily of marble, and reminiscent of the Mughal architecture of earlier emperors. Its archways mirror the shape of the tomb's archways, and its pishtaq arches incorporate the calligraphy that decorates the tomb. The vaulted ceilings and walls have elaborate geometric designs like those found in the other sandstone buildings in the complex.[citation needed]

At the far end of the complex are two grand red sandstone buildings that mirror each other, and face the sides of the tomb. The backs of the buildings parallel the western and eastern walls. The western building is a mosque and the other is the jawab (answer), thought to have been constructed for architectural balance although it may have been used as a guesthouse. Distinctions between the two buildings include the jawab's lack of a mihrab (a niche in a mosque's wall facing Mecca), and its floors of geometric design whereas the floor of the mosque is laid with outlines of 569 prayer rugs in black marble. The mosque's basic design of a long hall surmounted by three domes is similar to others built by Shah Jahan, particularly the Masjid-i Jahān-Numā, or Jama Masjid, Delhi. The Mughal mosques of this period divide the sanctuary hall into three areas comprising a main sanctuary and slightly smaller sanctuaries on either side. At the Taj Mahal, each sanctuary opens onto an expansive vaulting dome. The outlying buildings were completed in 1643.[9]


Taj Mahal and outlying buildings as seen from across the Yamuna River (northern view)
Construction
The Taj Mahal is built on a parcel of land to the south of the walled city of Agra. Shah Jahan presented Maharajah Jai Singh with a large palace in the centre of Agra in exchange for the land.[36] An area of roughly 1.2 hectares (3 acres) was excavated, filled with dirt to reduce seepage, and levelled at 50 metres (160 ft) above riverbank. In the tomb area, wells were dug and filled with stone and rubble to form the footings of the tomb. Instead of lashed bamboo, workmen constructed a colossal brick scaffold that mirrored the tomb. The scaffold was so enormous that foremen estimated it would take years to dismantle.[37]

The Taj Mahal was constructed using materials from all over India and Asia. It is believed over 1,000 elephants were used to transport building materials. It took efforts from 22,000 labourers, painters, embroidery artists and stonecutters to shape the Taj Mahal.[38] The translucent white marble was brought from Makrana, Rajasthan, the jasper from Punjab, jade and crystal from China. The turquoise was from Tibet and the Lapis lazuli from Afghanistan, while the sapphire came from Sri Lanka and the carnelian from Arabia. In all, twenty-eight types of precious and semi-precious stones were inlaid into the white marble.[citation needed]

According to the legend, Shah Jahan decreed that anyone could keep the bricks taken from the scaffold, and thus it was dismantled by peasants overnight.[citation needed] A 15-kilometre (9.3 mi) tamped-earth ramp was built to transport marble and materials to the construction site and teams of twenty or thirty oxen pulled the blocks on specially constructed wagons.[39] An elaborate post-and-beam pulley system was used to raise the blocks into desired position. Water was drawn from the river by a series of purs, an animal-powered rope and bucket mechanism, into a large storage tank and raised to a large distribution tank. It was passed into three subsidiary tanks, from which it was piped to the complex.[citation needed]

The plinth and tomb took roughly 12 years to complete. The remaining parts of the complex took an additional 10 years and were completed in order of minarets, mosque and jawab, and gateway. Since the complex was built in stages, discrepancies exist in completion dates due to differing opinions on "completion". Construction of the mausoleum itself was essentially completed by 1643[8] while work on the outlying buildings continued for years. Estimates of the cost of construction vary due to difficulties in estimating costs across time. The total cost at the time has been estimated to be about 32 million Indian rupees,[8] which is around 52.8 billion Indian rupees ($827 million US) based on 2015 values.[40]

Later days
Abdul Hamid Lahauri in his book Badshahnama refers to Taj Mahal as rauza-i munawwara (Perso-Arabic: روضه منواره rawdah-i munawwarah), meaning the illumined or illustrious tomb.[41] Soon after the Taj Mahal's completion, Shah Jahan was deposed by his son Aurangzeb and put under house arrest at nearby Agra Fort. Upon Shah Jahan's death, Aurangzeb buried him in the mausoleum next to his wife.[42] In the 18th century, the Jat rulers of Bharatpur invaded Agra and attacked the Taj Mahal, the two chandeliers, one of agate and another of silver, which were hung over the main cenotaph, were taken away by them, along with the gold and silver screen. Kanbo, a Mughal historian, said the gold shield which covered the 4.6-metre-high (15 ft) finial at the top of the main dome was also removed during the Jat despoliation.[43]

By the late 19th century, parts of the buildings had fallen into disrepair. During the time of the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the Taj Mahal was defaced by British soldiers and government officials, who chiselled out precious stones and lapis lazuli from its walls. At the end of the 19th century, British viceroy Lord Curzon ordered a sweeping restoration project, which was completed in 1908.[citation needed] He also commissioned the large lamp in the interior chamber, modelled after one in a Cairo mosque. During this time the garden was remodelled with British-style lawns that are still in place today.[citation needed]

Threats

Protective wartime scaffolding
In 1942, the government erected scaffolding to disguise the building in anticipation of air attacks by the Japanese Air Force.[44][45] During the India-Pakistan wars of 1965 and 1971, scaffolding was again erected to mislead bomber pilots.[46]

More recent threats have come from environmental pollution on the banks of the Yamuna River including acid rain[47] due to the Mathura Oil Refinery,[citation needed] which was opposed by Supreme Court of India directives.[48] The pollution has been turning the Taj Mahal yellow. To help control the pollution, the Indian government has set up the Taj Trapezium Zone (TTZ), a 10,400-square-kilometre (4,000 sq mi) area around the monument where strict emissions standards are in place.[49]

Concerns for the tomb's structural integrity have recently been raised because of a decline in the groundwater level in the Yamuna river basin which is falling at a rate of around 1.5 m (5 ft) per year. In 2010, cracks appeared in parts of the tomb, and the minarets which surround the monument were showing signs of tilting, as the wooden foundation of the tomb may be rotting due to lack of water. It has been pointed out by politicians, however, that the minarets are designed to tilt slightly outwards to prevent them from crashing on top of the tomb in the event of an earthquake. In 2011, it was reported that some predictions indicated that the tomb could collapse within five years.[50][50]

Small minarets located at two of the outlying buildings were reported as damaged by a storm on April 11, 2018.[51]

Tourism

Visitors at Taj Mahal
The Taj Mahal attracts a large number of tourists. UNESCO documented more than 2 million visitors in 2001,[52] which had increased to about 7–8 million in 2014.[3] A two-tier pricing system is in place, with a significantly lower entrance fee for Indian citizens and a more expensive one for foreigners. In 2018, the fee for Indian citizens was 50 INR, for foreign tourists 1,100 INR.[53] Most tourists visit in the cooler months of October, November and February. Polluting traffic is not allowed near the complex and tourists must either walk from parking areas or catch an electric bus. The Khawasspuras (northern courtyards) are currently being restored for use as a new visitor centre.[54][55]

The small town to the south of the Taj, known as Taj Ganji or Mumtazabad, was initially constructed with caravanserais, bazaars and markets to serve the needs of visitors and workers.[56] Lists of recommended travel destinations often feature the Taj Mahal, which also appears in several listings of seven wonders of the modern world, including the recently announced New Seven Wonders of the World, a recent poll with 100 million votes.[57]

The grounds are open from 06:00 to 19:00 weekdays, except for Friday when the complex is open for prayers at the mosque between 12:00 and 14:00. The complex is open for night viewing on the day of the full moon and two days before and after,[58] excluding Fridays and the month of Ramadan.

Myths

Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, one of the first European visitors to the Taj Mahal
Ever since its construction, the building has been the source of an admiration transcending culture and geography, and so personal and emotional responses have consistently eclipsed scholastic appraisals of the monument.[59] A longstanding myth holds that Shah Jahan planned a mausoleum to be built in black marble as a Black Taj Mahal across the Yamuna river.[6] The idea originates from fanciful writings of Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, a European traveller who visited Agra in 1665. It was suggested that his son Aurangzeb overthrew Shah Jahan before it could be built. Ruins of blackened marble across the river in Moonlight Garden, Mahtab Bagh, seemed to support this legend. However, excavations carried out in the 1990s found that they were discoloured white stones that had turned black.[60] A more credible theory for the origins of the black mausoleum was demonstrated in 2006 by archaeologists who reconstructed part of the pool in the Moonlight Garden. A dark reflection of the white mausoleum could clearly be seen, befitting Shah Jahan's obsession with symmetry and the positioning of the pool itself.[61]

No evidence exists for claims that describe, often in horrific detail, the deaths, dismemberments and mutilations which Shah Jahan supposedly inflicted on various architects and craftsmen associated with the tomb. Some stories claim that those involved in construction signed contracts committing themselves to have no part in any similar design. Similar claims are made for many famous buildings.[62] No evidence exists for claims that Lord William Bentinck, governor-general of India in the 1830s, supposedly planned to demolish the Taj Mahal and auction off the marble. Bentinck's biographer John Rosselli says that the story arose from Bentinck's fund-raising sale of discarded marble from Agra Fort.[63]

Another myth suggests that beating the silhouette of the finial will cause water to come forth. To this day, officials find broken bangles surrounding the silhouette.[64]

In 2000, India's Supreme Court dismissed P. N. Oak's petition[65] to declare that a Hindu king built the Taj Mahal.[62][66] ("counsel for the petitioner [...] withdrew the petition") In 2005 a similar petition was dismissed by the Allahabad High Court. This case was brought by Amar Nath Mishra, a social worker and preacher who says that the Taj Mahal was built by the Hindu King Parmar Dev in 1196.[67]

A theory that the Taj Mahal was designed by an Italian, Geronimo Vereneo, held sway for a brief period after it was first promoted by Henry George Keene in 1879 who went by a translation of a Spanish work Itinerario, (The Travels of Fray Sebastian Manrique, 1629–1643). Another theory that a Frenchman, Austin of Bordeaux designed the Taj was promoted by William Henry Sleeman based on the work of Jean-Baptiste Tavernier. These ideas were revived by Father Hosten and discussed again by E.B. Havell and served as the basis for subsequent theories and controversies.[68]

Controversies
As of 2017, several court cases about Taj Mahal being a Hindu temple have been inspired by P. N. Oak's theory.[69][70] In August 2017, Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) stated there was no evidence to suggest the monument ever housed a temple.[71] Bharatiya Janata Party's Vinay Katiyar in 2017 claimed that the 17th century monument was built by Mughal emperor Shah Jahan after destroying a Hindu temple called "Tejo Mahalaya" and it housed a Shiva linga. This claim had also been made by another BJP member Laxmikant Bajpai in 2014. BJP government's union minister of culture Mahesh Sharma stated in November 2015 during a session of the parliament, that there was no evidence that it was a temple. The theories about Taj Mahal being a Shiva temple began doing rounds when Oak released his 1989 book "Taj Mahal: The True Story". He claimed it was built in 1155 AD and not in the 17th century, as stated by the ASI.[72] Samajwadi Party leader Azam Khan stated Taj might be destroyed like Babri Masjid as people believed there was a temple there.[73] Katiyar called for demolition of Taj and replacement by a temple in February 2018, in response Indian National Congress MP Shashi Tharoor called him a troglodyte.[74]

A controversy was created in 2017 when the Uttar Pradesh government did not include it in its official tourism booklet "Utter Pradesh Tourism - Unlimited Possibilities". The chief minister Yogi Adityanath had earlier claimed it does not represent Indian culture.[75] Amidst this controversy, BJP MLA Sangeet Som had claimed that the those who built the Taj Mahal were traitors and it was a "blot" on the country's culture. He claimed it was built by a man who jailed his own father and wished to kill Hindus. BJP MP Anshul Verma supported his comments. AIMIM MP Asaduddin Owaisi, Jammu & Kashmir National Conference leader Omar Abdullah[76] and Azam Khan criticised him. CM Adityanath stated Som's comments were personal and the government will focus on tourism potential of every monument.[77]

Gallery
Taj Mahal

Eastern view in the morning

 

Western view at sunset

 

Taj Mahal through the fog

 

A panoramic view looking 360 degrees around the Taj Mahal in 2005
See also
Wonders of the World
New7Wonders of the World
Architecture of India
Fatehpur Sikri, a nearby city and World Heritage Site
Bibi Ka Maqbara, a similar building in the Deccan, Aurangabad
Taj Mahal replicas and derivatives
Inside, a 1968 new-age music album recorded in the building
References
Notes
 Unesco Taj Mahal 2016.
 DuTemple 2003, p. 32.
 Archaeological Survey of 2015.
 Wells 1990, p. 704.
 Ahmed 1998, p. 94.
 Asher 1992, p. 210.
 Taj Mahal.
 Sarkar 1919, pp. 30, 31.
 Creation History of.
 Chaghtai 1938, p. 46.
 Chaghtai 1938, p. 146.
 Copplestone 1963, p. 166.
 Taj Mahal Mausoleum.
 ASI.
 Onion domes, bulbous.
 Ahuja & Rajani 2016, pp. 996–997.
 Bloom 2009, p. 32.
 ‘ Taj!’ EXTERIORS.
 Tillotson 1990.
 Taj Mahal Calligraphy.
 Koch 2006, p. 100.
 Anon.
 Visiting Taj -.
 Economic times article.
 Khatri 2012, p. 128.
 Alī Jāvīd 2008, p. 309.
 Taj.net.
 Begley 1979, p. 14.
 Plants growing throughout.
 Wright 2000.
 Allan 1958, p. 318.
 Dunn 2007.
 Royals 1996, p. 7.
 Koch 2006, p. 139.
 Thetajindia.weebly.com.
 Chaghtai 1938, p. 54.
 Koch 1997.
 "10 interesting facts about the Taj Mahal". UNIGLOBE Carefree Travel. Retrieved 22 January 2019.
 Carroll 1973, p. 64.
 Wolframalpha Computational Knowledge.
 Tillotson 2008, p. 14.
 Gascoigne 1971, p. 243.
 Perils Taj has 2003.
 Scaffolding from NatGeo.
 DuTemple 2003, p. 96.
 Bbc, Taj Mahal.
 Acid Rain.
 Supreme Court Oppose.
 UNESCO 1997.
 Taj Mahal could 2011.
 India Taj Mahal.
 UNESCO 2002.
 Ticketing.
 Koch 2006, p. 120..
 Koch 2006, p. 254.
 Koch 2006, pp. 201–208.
 Travel Correspondent 2007.
 Archaeological Survey of 2004.
 Koch 2006, p. 231.
 Koch 2006, p. 249.
 Warrior Empire: The Mughals of India (2006) A+E Television Network.
 Koch 2006, p. 239.
 Rosselli 1974, p. 283.
 Koch 2006, p. 240.
 Writ Petition (Civil) 336 of 2000, P.N. OAK vs. U.O.I. & Ors.
 Plea to rewrite.
 Taj Mahal part.
 Dixon 1987, p. 170.
 Qureshi 2017.
 Mausoleum or Temple.
 Bjp'S Vinay Katiyar.
 What is Tejo Mahalaya controversy?
 Taj Mahal may meet the same fate as Babri Masjid: Azam Khan
 Shashi Tharoor Calls 'Taj Mahal' Haters ‘Troglodyte’. Here's What It Means
 TAJ MAHAL DROPPED FROM TOURISM BOOKLET BY STATE GOVERNMENT
 'Taj Built By Traitors,' Says BJP's Sangeet Som, Hate-Speech Giver
 Sangeet Som's Taj Mahal a blot remark fails to get Yogi Adityanath's endorsement
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"BBC, Taj Mahal". Archived from the original on 26 April 2015. Retrieved 7 February 2015.
Begley, Wayne E. (March 1979). "The Myth of the Taj Mahal and a New Theory of Its Symbolic Meaning". The Art Bulletin. 61 (1): 14. doi:10.2307/3049862. JSTOR 3049862.
"BJP's Vinay Katiyar now calls Taj Mahal a Hindu temple – a 'bee in bonnet' theory that Supreme Court once rejected". India Today.
Carroll, David (1973). The Taj Mahal. Newsweek. ISBN 978-0-88225-024-3. Archived from the original on 4 July 2014.
Chaghtai, Muhammad Abdulla (1938). Le Tadj Mahal d'Agra (Inde), histoire et description comprenant en appendice le texte d'un ms. persan sur le Tadj provenant de la Bibliothèque nationale à Paris: thèse pour le doctorat d'Université présentée à la Faculté des lettres de l'Université de Paris, par Muhammad Abdulla Chaghtai (Thesis). Éditions de la Connaissance.
Copplestone, Trewin (1963). World architecture: an illustrated history from earliest times. Crescent Books. ISBN 978-0-517-35148-2.
"Creation History of Taj Mahal". Archived from the original on 6 June 2017. Retrieved 19 October 2017.
Dixon, Jack S. (1987). "The Veroneo controversy". The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History. 15 (2): 170–178. doi:10.1080/03086538708582735.
Dunn, Jerry Camarillo Jr. (2007). "HowStuffWorks: The Taj Mahal". Archived from the original on 13 September 2007.
DuTemple, Lesley A. (2003). The Taj Mahal. Twenty-First Century Books. ISBN 978-0-8225-4694-8. Archived from the original on 3 March 2018. Retrieved 7 February 2015.
"Economic times article". Retrieved 5 May 2015.
Gascoigne, Bamber (1971). The great Moghuls. Cape.
Havel, E.B. (1913). Indian Architecture: Its Psychology, Structure and History, John Murray.
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"Is Taj Mahal a mausoleum or a Shiva temple? CIC asks govt to clarify". 10 August 2017. Retrieved 16 January 2019.
Khatri, Vikas (2012). Greatest Wonders of the World. V&S Publishers. ISBN 978-93-81588-30-7.
Koch, Ebba (1997). "Mughal Palace Gardens from Babur to Shah Jahan (1526–1648)". Muqarnas. 14: 143–165. JSTOR 1523242.
Koch, Ebba (2006) [Aug 2006]. The Complete Taj Mahal: And the Riverfront Gardens of Agra (First ed.). Thames & Hudson Ltd., 288 pages. ISBN 0-500-34209-1.
Koch, Ebba (2006). The Complete Taj Mahal: And the Riverfront Gardens of Agra. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-34209-1.
"Onion domes, bulbous domes". strombergarchitectural.com. Archived from the original on 7 May 2015. Retrieved 4 March 2015.
"Perils the Taj has faced". The Tribune (Chandigarh). 13 July 2003. Archived from the original on 17 January 2016. Retrieved 7 February 2015.
"Plea to rewrite Taj history dismissed". www.thehindu.com. Retrieved 16 January 2019.
"The plants growing throughout the Taj Mahal complex". India Tourism. indiatourism.ws. Archived from the original on 17 July 2017. Retrieved 7 June 2017.
Qureshi, Siraj (2017). "Another court petition challenges Taj Mahal's story as a symbol of love". India Today. Retrieved 16 January 2019.
Rosselli, John (1974). Lord William Bentinck: The Making of a Liberal Imperialist, 1774–1839. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-02299-7.
Royals, Sue (1996). Our Global Village – India. India: Lorenz Educational Press. ISBN 978-1-4291-1107-2. Archived from the original on 13 October 2015.
Sarkar, Jadunath (Sir) (1919). Studies in Mughal India. Calcutta M.C. Sarkar. Retrieved 20 May 2015.
"Scaffolding from NatGeo". Archived from the original on 4 February 2015. Retrieved 7 February 2015.
"Supreme Court Oppose". Archived from the original on 4 February 2015. Retrieved 7 February 2015.
"Taj Mahal Mausoleum from Britannica". Archived from the original on 21 February 2015. Retrieved 4 March 2015.
"Taj Mahal could collapse within two to five years". Fox News. 7 October 2011. Archived from the original on 30 December 2014. Retrieved 7 February 2015.
"Taj Mahal could collapse within five years because wooden foundations are rotting". Daily Mail. 5 October 2011. Archived from the original on 4 August 2012. Retrieved 7 February 2015.
"Taj Mahal part of an ancient temple: UP BJP chief". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 8 December 2014. Retrieved 7 February 2015.
"Taj Mahal". Treasures of the World. Public Broadcasting Service. Archived from the original on 16 February 2015. Retrieved 7 February 2015.
"Taj Mahal Calligraphy". Archived from the original on 1 December 2016.
"Taj.net". Archived from the original on 28 April 2015. Retrieved 5 May 2015.
"Thetajindia.weebly.com". Archived from the original on 4 February 2015. Retrieved 7 February 2015.
"Ticketing & Entry Fee of Top Monuments in Agra, Agra Monuments::Official WebSite of Taj Mahal-U.P.Tourism". www.tajmahal.gov.in.
Tillotson, Giles Henry Rupert (1990). Mughal India. Chronicle Books. ISBN 978-0-87701-686-1.
Tillotson, G. H. R (2008). Taj Mahal. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-03186-9.
Travel Correspondent (9 July 2007). "New Seven Wonders of the World announced". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 21 January 2008. Retrieved 7 February 2015.
"UNESCO". UNESCO. 30 April 1997. Archived from the original on 26 May 2008. Retrieved 7 February 2015.
UNESCO (2002). "Periodic Reporting Exercise on the Application of the World Heritage Convention" (PDF). UNESCO. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 February 2015. Retrieved 7 February 2015.
"UNESCO Taj Mahal". UNESCO Culture World Heritage Centre, World Heritage List. UNESCO. 2016. Archived from the original on 27 August 2016. Retrieved 10 September 2016.
"Visiting the Taj – calligraphy". Treasures of the World. Public Broadcasting Service. Archived from the original on 9 May 2015. Retrieved 7 February 2015.
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Wright, Karen (1 July 2000). "Works in Progress". Discover. Waukesha, Wisconsin: Kalmbach Publishing. Archived from the original on 29 January 2015. Retrieved 7 February 2015.
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External links
 Media related to Taj Mahal at Wikimedia Commons
 Quotations related to Taj Mahal at Wikiquote
 Taj Mahal travel guide from Wikivoyage
Official website of the Taj Mahal
Description of the Taj Mahal at the Archaeological Survey of India
Profile of the Taj Mahal at UNESCO
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The Beatles
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This article is about the band. For their eponymous album, see The Beatles (album). For other uses, see The Beatles (disambiguation).
"Beatle" redirects here. For the insect, see beetle.
"Fab Four" redirects here. For other uses, see Fab Four (disambiguation).
The Beatles
A square quartered into four head shots of young men with moptop haircuts. All four wear white shirts and dark coats.
The Beatles in February 1964; clockwise from top left: John Lennon, Paul McCartney, Ringo Starr and George Harrison
Background information
Origin	Liverpool, England
Genres	
Rockpop
Years active	1960–1970
Labels	
ParlophoneAppleCapitol
Associated acts	
The QuarrymenTony SheridanBilly PrestonPlastic Ono Band
Website	thebeatles.com
Past members	
John Lennon
Paul McCartney
George Harrison
Ringo Starr
The Beatles were an English rock band formed in Liverpool in 1960. With a line-up comprising John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr, they are regarded as the most influential band of all time.[1] The group were integral to the evolution of pop music into an art form and to the development of the counterculture of the 1960s.[2] Their sound, rooted in skiffle, beat and 1950s rock and roll, incorporated elements of classical music and traditional pop in innovative ways. They also pioneered recording techniques and explored music styles ranging from ballads and Indian music to psychedelia and hard rock. As they continued to draw influences from a variety of cultural sources, their musical and lyrical sophistication grew, and they came to be seen as embodying the era's socio-cultural movements.

Led by primary songwriters Lennon and McCartney, the Beatles built their reputation playing clubs in Liverpool and Hamburg over a three-year period from 1960, initially with Stuart Sutcliffe playing bass. The core trio of Lennon, McCartney and Harrison, who had been together since 1958, went through a succession of drummers, including Pete Best, before asking Starr to join them in 1962. Manager Brian Epstein moulded them into a professional act, and producer George Martin guided and developed their recordings, greatly expanding their domestic success after their first hit, "Love Me Do", in late 1962. As their popularity grew into the intense fan frenzy dubbed "Beatlemania", the band acquired the nickname "the Fab Four", with Epstein, Martin and other members of the band's entourage sometimes given the informal title of "fifth Beatle".

The Beatles were international stars by early 1964, leading the "British Invasion" of the United States pop market and breaking numerous sales records. They soon made their film debut with A Hard Day's Night (1964). From 1965 onwards, they produced increasingly innovative recordings, including the albums Rubber Soul (1965), Revolver (1966) and Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band (1967), and enjoyed further commercial success with The Beatles (also known as the "White Album", 1968) and Abbey Road (1969). In 1968, they founded Apple Corps, a multi-armed multimedia corporation that continues to oversee projects related to the band's legacy. After the group's break-up in 1970, all four members enjoyed success as solo artists. Lennon was shot and killed in December 1980, and Harrison died of lung cancer in November 2001. McCartney and Starr remain musically active.

The Beatles are the best-selling band in history, with estimated sales of over 800 million albums worldwide. They are the best-selling music artists in the US, with certified sales of over 178 million units, and have had more number-one albums on the British charts, and have sold more singles in the UK, than any other act. The group were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1988, and all four main members were inducted individually between 1994 and 2015. In 2008, the group topped Billboard magazine's list of the all-time most successful artists; as of 2019, the Beatles hold the record for most number-one hits on the Hot 100 chart with twenty. The band have received seven Grammy Awards, an Academy Award (for Best Original Song Score for the 1970 film Let It Be) and fifteen Ivor Novello Awards. They were also collectively included in Time magazine's compilation of the twentieth century's 100 most influential people.


Contents
1	History
1.1	1957–1962: Formation, Hamburg, and UK popularity
1.2	1963–1966: Beatlemania and touring years
1.2.1	Please Please Me and With the Beatles
1.2.2	First visit to United States and British Invasion
1.2.3	A Hard Day's Night
1.2.4	1964 world tour, meeting Bob Dylan, and stand on civil rights
1.2.5	Beatles for Sale, Help! and Rubber Soul
1.2.6	Controversy, final tour and Revolver
1.3	1966–1970: Studio years
1.3.1	Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band
1.3.2	Magical Mystery Tour, the White Album and Yellow Submarine
1.3.3	Abbey Road, Let It Be and separation
1.4	1970–present: After the break-up
1.4.1	1970s
1.4.2	1980s
1.4.3	1990s
1.4.4	2000s
1.4.5	2010s
2	Musical style and development
2.1	Influences
2.2	Genres
2.3	Contribution of George Martin
2.4	In the studio
3	Legacy
4	Awards and achievements
5	Personnel
6	Discography
7	Song catalogue
8	Selected filmography
9	Concert tours
10	Notes
11	Citations
12	Sources
13	Further reading
14	External links
History
History of the Beatles
The QuarrymenIn HamburgAt The Cavern ClubDecca auditionBeatlemaniaNorth American releases"More popular than Jesus"In BangorIn IndiaBreak-upTimeline
vte
1957–1962: Formation, Hamburg, and UK popularity
In March 1957, John Lennon, then aged sixteen, formed a skiffle group with several friends from Quarry Bank High School in Liverpool. They briefly called themselves the Blackjacks, before changing their name to the Quarrymen after discovering that a respected local group was already using the other name.[3] Fifteen-year-old Paul McCartney joined them as a rhythm guitarist shortly after he and Lennon met that July.[4] In February 1958, McCartney invited his friend George Harrison to watch the band. The fifteen-year-old auditioned for Lennon, impressing him with his playing, but Lennon initially thought Harrison was too young for the band. After a month of Harrison's persistence, during a second meeting (arranged by McCartney), he performed the lead guitar part of the instrumental song "Raunchy" on the upper deck of a Liverpool bus,[5] and they enlisted him as their lead guitarist.[6][7]

By January 1959, Lennon's Quarry Bank friends had left the group, and he began his studies at the Liverpool College of Art.[8] The three guitarists, billing themselves at least three times as Johnny and the Moondogs,[9] were playing rock and roll whenever they could find a drummer.[10] Lennon's art school friend Stuart Sutcliffe, who had just sold one of his paintings and was persuaded to purchase a bass guitar, joined in January 1960, and it was he who suggested changing the band's name to Beatals, as a tribute to Buddy Holly and the Crickets.[11][12] They used this name until May, when they became the Silver Beetles, before undertaking a brief tour of Scotland as the backing group for pop singer and fellow Liverpudlian Johnny Gentle. By early July, they had refashioned themselves as the Silver Beatles, and by the middle of August shortened the name to The Beatles.[13]

Allan Williams, the Beatles' unofficial manager, arranged a residency for them in Hamburg, but lacking a full-time drummer they auditioned and hired Pete Best in mid-August 1960. The band, now a five-piece, left four days later, contracted to club owner Bruno Koschmider for what would be a 3​1⁄2-month residency.[14] Beatles historian Mark Lewisohn writes: "They pulled into Hamburg at dusk on 17 August, the time when the red-light area comes to life ... flashing neon lights screamed out the various entertainment on offer, while scantily clad women sat unabashed in shop windows waiting for business opportunities."[15]

The Reeperbahn nighclub as seen from the side walk with its entrance lighted. Theatre marques say "Sex" and "Peep live shows".
Nightclub on the Reeperbahn in St Pauli – the red-light district of Hamburg where the Beatles performed extensively from 1960 to 1962 (photo taken 2006)
Koschmider had converted a couple of strip clubs in the district into music venues, and he initially placed the Beatles at the Indra Club. After closing Indra due to noise complaints, he moved them to the Kaiserkeller in October.[16] When he learned they had been performing at the rival Top Ten Club in breach of their contract, he gave the band one month's termination notice,[17] and reported the underage Harrison, who had obtained permission to stay in Hamburg by lying to the German authorities about his age.[18] The authorities arranged for Harrison's deportation in late November.[19] One week later, Koschmider had McCartney and Best arrested for arson after they set fire to a condom in a concrete corridor; the authorities deported them.[20] Lennon returned to Liverpool in early December, while Sutcliffe remained in Hamburg until late February with his German fiancée Astrid Kirchherr,[21] who took the first semi-professional photos of the Beatles.[22]

During the next two years, the Beatles were resident for periods in Hamburg, where they used Preludin both recreationally and to maintain their energy through all-night performances.[23] In 1961, during their second Hamburg engagement, Kirchherr cut Sutcliffe's hair in the "exi" (existentialist) style, later adopted by the other Beatles.[24][25] When Sutcliffe decided to leave the band early that year and resume his art studies in Germany, McCartney took up the bass.[26] Producer Bert Kaempfert contracted what was now a four-piece group until June 1962, and he used them as Tony Sheridan's backing band on a series of recordings for Polydor Records.[12][27] As part of the sessions, the Beatles were signed to Polydor for one year.[28] Credited to "Tony Sheridan & the Beat Brothers", the single "My Bonnie", recorded in June 1961 and released four months later, reached number 32 on the Musikmarkt chart.[29]

After the Beatles completed their second Hamburg residency, they enjoyed increasing popularity in Liverpool with the growing Merseybeat movement. However, they were also growing tired of the monotony of numerous appearances at the same clubs night after night.[30] In November 1961, during one of the group's frequent performances at The Cavern Club, they encountered Brian Epstein, a local record-store owner and music columnist.[31] He later recalled: "I immediately liked what I heard. They were fresh, and they were honest, and they had what I thought was a sort of presence ... [a] star quality."[32]

Epstein courted the band over the next couple of months, and they appointed him as their manager in January 1962.[33] Throughout early and mid-1962, Epstein sought to free the Beatles from their contractual obligations to Bert Kaempfert Productions. He eventually negotiated a one-month-early release from their contract in exchange for one last recording session in Hamburg.[34] Tragedy greeted them on their return to Germany in April, when a distraught Kirchherr met them at the airport with news of Sutcliffe's death the previous day from what was later determined as a brain hemorrhage.[35]

Epstein began negotiations with record labels for a recording contract. In order to secure a UK record contract, Epstein negotiated an early end to the band's contract with Polydor, in exchange for more recordings backing Tony Sheridan.[36] After a New Year's Day audition, Decca Records rejected the band with the comment "Guitar groups are on the way out, Mr. Epstein."[37] However, three months later, producer George Martin signed the Beatles to EMI's Parlophone label.[35]

A flight of stone steps leads from an asphalt car park up to the main entrance of a white two-story building. The ground floor has two sash windows, the first floor has three shorter sash windows. Two more windows are visible at basement level. The decorative stonework around the doors and windows is painted grey.
Main entrance at Abbey Road Studios
Martin's first recording session with the Beatles took place at EMI's Abbey Road Studios in London on 6 June 1962.[38] Martin immediately complained to Epstein about Best's poor drumming and suggested they use a session drummer in his place.[39] Already contemplating Best's dismissal,[40] the Beatles replaced him in mid-August with Ringo Starr, who left Rory Storm and the Hurricanes to join them.[38] A 4 September session at EMI yielded a recording of "Love Me Do" featuring Starr on drums, but a dissatisfied Martin hired drummer Andy White for the band's third session a week later, which produced recordings of "Love Me Do", "Please Please Me" and "P.S. I Love You".[38]

Martin initially selected the Starr version of "Love Me Do" for the band's first single, though subsequent re-pressings featured the White version, with Starr on tambourine.[38] Released in early October, "Love Me Do" peaked at number seventeen on the Record Retailer chart.[41] Their television debut came later that month with a live performance on the regional news programme People and Places.[42] After Martin suggested rerecording "Please Please Me" at a faster tempo,[43] a studio session in late November yielded that recording,[44] of which Martin accurately predicted, "You've just made your first No.1."[45]

In December 1962, the Beatles concluded their fifth and final Hamburg residency.[46] By 1963, they had agreed that all four band members would contribute vocals to their albums – including Starr, despite his restricted vocal range, to validate his standing in the group.[47] Lennon and McCartney had established a songwriting partnership, and as the band's success grew, their dominant collaboration limited Harrison's opportunities as a lead vocalist.[48] Epstein, in an effort to maximise the Beatles' commercial potential, encouraged them to adopt a professional approach to performing.[49] Lennon recalled him saying, "Look, if you really want to get in these bigger places, you're going to have to change – stop eating on stage, stop swearing, stop smoking ..."[37] Lennon said: "We used to dress how we liked, on and off stage. He'd tell us that jeans were not particularly smart and could we possibly manage to wear proper trousers, but he didn't want us suddenly looking square. He'd let us have our own sense of individuality."[37]

1963–1966: Beatlemania and touring years
Please Please Me and With the Beatles

The band's logo was designed by Ivor Arbiter.[50]
On 11 February 1963, the Beatles recorded ten songs during a single studio session for their debut LP, Please Please Me. The album was supplemented by the four tracks already released on their first two singles. Martin originally considered recording the Beatles' debut LP live at The Cavern Club, but after deciding that the building's acoustics were inadequate, he elected to simulate a "live" album with minimal production in "a single marathon session at Abbey Road".[51] After the moderate success of "Love Me Do", the single "Please Please Me" met with a more emphatic reception. Released in January 1963, two months ahead of the album of the same name, the song reached number one on every UK chart except Record Retailer, where it peaked at number two.[52]

Recalling how the Beatles "rushed to deliver a debut album, bashing out Please Please Me in a day", AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine comments, "Decades after its release, the album still sounds fresh, precisely because of its intense origins."[53] Lennon said little thought went into composition at the time; he and McCartney were "just writing songs à la Everly Brothers, à la Buddy Holly, pop songs with no more thought of them than that – to create a sound. And the words were almost irrelevant."[54]


"She Loves You"
Sample of "She Loves You". The song's repeated use of "yeah" exclamations became a signature phrase for the group at the time.[55][56]
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Released in March 1963, the album initiated a run during which eleven of their twelve studio albums released in the United Kingdom through to 1970 reached number one.[57] The band's third single, "From Me to You", came out in April and was also a chart-topping hit, starting an almost unbroken string of seventeen British number-one singles for the Beatles, including all but one of the eighteen they released over the next six years.[58] Issued in August, the band's fourth single, "She Loves You", achieved the fastest sales of any record in the UK up to that time, selling three-quarters of a million copies in under four weeks.[59] It became their first single to sell a million copies, and remained the biggest-selling record in the UK until 1978.[60][nb 1]

Their commercial success brought increased media exposure, to which the Beatles responded with an irreverent and comical attitude that defied the expectations of pop musicians at the time, inspiring even more interest.[61] The band toured the UK three times in the first half of the year: a four-week tour that began in February, the Beatles' first nationwide, preceded three-week tours in March and May–June.[62] As their popularity spread, a frenzied adulation of the group took hold. Greeted with riotous enthusiasm by screaming fans, the press dubbed the phenomenon "Beatlemania".[63] Although not billed as tour leaders, the Beatles overshadowed American acts Tommy Roe and Chris Montez during the February engagements and assumed top billing "by audience demand", something no British act had previously accomplished while touring with artists from the US.[64] A similar situation arose during their May–June tour with Roy Orbison.[65]


McCartney, Harrison, Swedish pop singer Lill-Babs and Lennon on the set of the Swedish television show Drop-In, 30 October 1963[66]
In late October, the Beatles began a five-day tour of Sweden, their first time abroad since the final Hamburg engagement of December 1962.[67] On their return to the UK on 31 October several hundred screaming fans greeted them in heavy rain at Heathrow Airport. Around 50 to 100 journalists and photographers as well as representatives from the BBC also joined the airport reception, the first of more than 100 such events.[68] The next day, the band began its fourth tour of Britain within nine months, this one scheduled for six weeks.[69] In mid-November, as Beatlemania intensified, police resorted to using high-pressure water hoses to control the crowd before a concert in Plymouth.[70]

Please Please Me maintained the top position on the Record Retailer chart for 30 weeks, only to be displaced by its follow-up, With the Beatles,[71] which EMI released on 22 November to record advance orders of 270,000 copies. The LP topped a half-million albums sold in one week.[72] Recorded between July and October, With the Beatles made better use of studio production techniques than its predecessor.[73] It held the top spot for 21 weeks with a chart life of 40 weeks.[74] Erlewine described the LP as "a sequel of the highest order – one that betters the original".[75]

In a reversal of then standard practice, EMI released the album ahead of the impending single "I Want to Hold Your Hand", with the song excluded to maximise the single's sales.[76] The album caught the attention of music critic William Mann of The Times, who suggested that Lennon and McCartney were "the outstanding English composers of 1963".[73] The newspaper published a series of articles in which Mann offered detailed analyses of the music, lending it respectability.[77] With the Beatles became the second album in UK chart history to sell a million copies, a figure previously reached only by the 1958 South Pacific soundtrack.[78] When writing the sleeve notes for the album, the band's press officer, Tony Barrow, used the superlative the "fabulous foursome", which the media widely adopted as "the Fab Four".[79]

First visit to United States and British Invasion
Main article: The Beatles in the United States
EMI's American subsidiary, Capitol Records, hindered the Beatles' releases in the United States for more than a year by initially declining to issue their music, including their first three singles. Concurrent negotiations with the independent US label Vee-Jay led to the release of some of the songs in 1963, but not all.[80] Vee-Jay finished preparation for the album Introducing... The Beatles, culled from most of the songs of Parlophone's Please Please Me, but a management shake-up led to the album not being released.[nb 2] Then when it surfaced that the label did not report royalties on their sales, the licence Vee-Jay signed with EMI was voided.[82] A new licence was granted to the Swan label for the single "She Loves You". The record received some airplay in the Tidewater area of Virginia by Gene Loving of radio station WGH and was featured on the "Rate-a-Record" segment of American Bandstand, but it failed to catch on nationally.[83]

A black-and-white image of four men standing in front of a crowd of people at the bottom of an aeroplane staircase
The Beatles arriving at John F. Kennedy International Airport, 7 February 1964
Epstein arranged for a $40,000 US marketing campaign. American chart success began after disc jockey Carroll James of AM radio station WWDC, in Washington, DC, obtained a copy of the British single "I Want to Hold Your Hand" in mid-December 1963 and began playing it on-air.[84] Taped copies of the song soon circulated among other radio stations throughout the US. This caused an increase in demand, leading Capitol to bring forward the release of "I Want to Hold Your Hand" by three weeks.[85] Issued on 26 December, with the band's previously scheduled debut there just weeks away, "I Want to Hold Your Hand" sold a million copies, becoming a number-one hit in the US by mid-January.[86] In its wake, Vee-Jay released Introducing... The Beatles[87] to go along with Capitol's debut album, Meet the Beatles!, while Swan reactivated production of "She Loves You".[88]


The Beatles with Ed Sullivan, February 1964
On 7 February 1964, the Beatles left the United Kingdom with an estimated 4,000 fans gathered at Heathrow, waving and screaming as the aircraft took off.[89] Upon landing at New York's John F. Kennedy Airport, an uproarious crowd estimated at 3,000 greeted them.[90] They gave their first live US television performance two days later on The Ed Sullivan Show, watched by approximately 73 million viewers in over 23 million households,[91] or 34 per cent of the American population. Biographer Jonathan Gould writes that, according to the Nielsen rating service, it was "the largest audience that had ever been recorded for an American television program".[92] The next morning, the Beatles awoke to a largely negative critical consensus in the US,[93] but a day later at their first US concert, Beatlemania erupted at the Washington Coliseum.[94] Back in New York the following day, the Beatles met with another strong reception during two shows at Carnegie Hall.[91] The band flew to Florida, where they appeared on the weekly Ed Sullivan Show a second time, before another 70 million viewers, before returning to the UK on 22 February.[95]

The Beatles' first visit to the United States took place when the nation was still mourning the assassination of President John F. Kennedy the previous November.[96] Commentators often suggest that, for many, particularly the young, the Beatles' performances reignited the sense of excitement and possibility that momentarily faded in the wake of the assassination, and helped make way for the revolutionary social changes to come in the decade.[97] Their hairstyle, unusually long for the era and mocked by many adults,[12] became an emblem of rebellion to the burgeoning youth culture.[98]

The group's popularity generated unprecedented interest in British music, and a number of other UK acts subsequently made their own American debuts, successfully touring over the next three years in what was termed the British Invasion.[99] The Beatles' success in the US opened the door for a successive string of British beat groups and pop acts such as the Dave Clark Five, the Animals, Petula Clark, the Kinks, and the Rolling Stones to achieve success in America.[100] During the week of 4 April 1964, the Beatles held twelve positions on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart, including the top five.[101][nb 3]

A Hard Day's Night
Capitol Records' lack of interest throughout 1963 did not go unnoticed, and a competitor, United Artists Records, encouraged their film division to offer the Beatles a three-motion-picture deal, primarily for the commercial potential of the soundtracks in the US.[103] Directed by Richard Lester, A Hard Day's Night involved the band for six weeks in March–April 1964 as they played themselves in a musical comedy.[104] The film premiered in London and New York in July and August, respectively, and was an international success, with some critics drawing comparison with the Marx Brothers.[105]

United Artists released a full soundtrack album for the North American market, combining Beatles songs and Martin's orchestral score; elsewhere, the group's third studio LP, A Hard Day's Night, contained songs from the film on side one and other new recordings on side two.[106] According to Erlewine, the album saw them "truly coming into their own as a band. All of the disparate influences on their first two albums coalesced into a bright, joyous, original sound, filled with ringing guitars and irresistible melodies."[107] That "ringing guitar" sound was primarily the product of Harrison's 12-string electric Rickenbacker, a prototype given to him by the manufacturer, which made its debut on the record.[108][nb 4]

1964 world tour, meeting Bob Dylan, and stand on civil rights

McCartney, Harrison and Lennon performing on Dutch TV in 1964
Touring internationally in June and July, the Beatles staged 37 shows over 27 days in Denmark, the Netherlands, Hong Kong, Australia and New Zealand.[109][nb 5] In August and September they returned to the US, with a 30-concert tour of 23 cities.[111] Generating intense interest once again, the month-long tour attracted between 10,000 and 20,000 fans to each 30-minute performance in cities from San Francisco to New York.[111]

In August, journalist Al Aronowitz arranged for the Beatles to meet Bob Dylan.[112] Visiting the band in their New York hotel suite, Dylan introduced them to cannabis.[113] Gould points out the musical and cultural significance of this meeting, before which the musicians' respective fanbases were "perceived as inhabiting two separate subcultural worlds": Dylan's audience of "college kids with artistic or intellectual leanings, a dawning political and social idealism, and a mildly bohemian style" contrasted with their fans, "veritable 'teenyboppers' – kids in high school or grade school whose lives were totally wrapped up in the commercialised popular culture of television, radio, pop records, fan magazines, and teen fashion. To many of Dylan's followers in the folk music scene, the Beatles were seen as idolaters, not idealists."[114] Within six months of the meeting, according to Gould, "Lennon would be making records on which he openly imitated Dylan's nasal drone, brittle strum, and introspective vocal persona"; and six months after that, Dylan began performing with a backing band and electric instrumentation, and "dressed in the height of Mod fashion".[115] As a result, Gould continues, the traditional division between folk and rock enthusiasts "nearly evaporated", as the Beatles' fans began to mature in their outlook and Dylan's audience embraced the new, youth-driven pop culture.[115]

During the 1964 US tour, the group were confronted with the reality of racial segregation in the country at the time, particularly in the South.[116][117] When informed that the venue for their 11 September concert, the Gator Bowl in Jacksonville, Florida, was segregated, the Beatles said they would refuse to perform unless the audience was integrated.[118][116][117] Lennon stated: "We never play to segregated audiences and we aren't going to start now ... I'd sooner lose our appearance money."[116] City officials relented and agreed to allow an integrated show.[116] The group also cancelled their reservations at the whites-only Hotel George Washington in Jacksonville.[117] Documents reveal that for their subsequent US tours in 1965 and 1966, the Beatles included clauses in contracts stipulating that shows be integrated.[117][119]

Beatles for Sale, Help! and Rubber Soul
According to Gould, Beatles for Sale, the Beatles' fourth studio LP, evidenced a growing conflict between the commercial pressures of their global success and their creative ambitions.[120] They had intended the album, recorded between August and October 1964,[121] to continue the format established by A Hard Day's Night which, unlike their first two LPs, contained only original songs.[122] They had nearly exhausted their backlog of songs on the previous album, however, and given the challenges constant international touring posed to their songwriting efforts, Lennon admitted, "Material's becoming a hell of a problem".[123] As a result, six covers from their extensive repertoire were chosen to complete the album. Released in early December, its eight original compositions stood out, demonstrating the growing maturity of the Lennon–McCartney songwriting partnership.[122]

In early 1965, following a dinner with Lennon, Harrison and their wives, Harrison's dentist John Riley secretly added LSD to their coffee.[124] Lennon described the experience: "It was just terrifying, but it was fantastic. I was pretty stunned for a month or two."[125] He and Harrison subsequently became regular users of the drug, joined by Starr on at least one occasion. Harrison's use of psychedelic drugs encouraged his path to meditation and Hinduism. He commented: "For me, it was like a flash. The first time I had acid, it just opened up something in my head that was inside of me, and I realized a lot of things. I didn't learn them because I already knew them, but that happened to be the key that opened the door to reveal them. From the moment I had that, I wanted to have it all the time – these thoughts about the yogis and the Himalayas, and Ravi's music."[126][127] McCartney was initially reluctant to try it, but eventually did so in late 1966.[128] He became the first Beatle to discuss LSD publicly, declaring in a magazine interview that "it opened my eyes" and "made me a better, more honest, more tolerant member of society".[129]

The Beatles performing music in a field. In the foreground, the drums are played by Starr (only the top of his head is visible). Beyond him, the other three stand in a column with their guitars. In the rear, Harrison, head down, strikes a chord. In the front, Lennon smiles and gives a little wave toward camera, holding his pick. Between them, McCartney is jocularly about to choke Lennon.
The US trailer for Help! with (from the rear) Harrison, McCartney, Lennon and (largely obscured) Starr
Controversy erupted in June 1965 when Queen Elizabeth II appointed all four Beatles Members of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) after Prime Minister Harold Wilson nominated them for the award.[130] In protest – the honour was at that time primarily bestowed upon military veterans and civic leaders – some conservative MBE recipients returned their own insignia.[131] Released in July, the Beatles' second film, Help!, was again directed by Lester. Described as "mainly a relentless spoof of Bond",[132] it inspired a mixed response among both reviewers and the band. McCartney said: "Help! was great but it wasn't our film – we were sort of guest stars. It was fun, but basically, as an idea for a film, it was a bit wrong."[133] The soundtrack was dominated by Lennon, who wrote and sang lead on most of its songs, including the two singles: "Help!" and "Ticket to Ride".[134] The accompanying Help! album, the group's fifth studio LP, mirrored A Hard Day's Night by featuring soundtrack songs on side one and additional songs from the same sessions on side two.[135] The LP contained all original material save for two covers, "Act Naturally" and "Dizzy Miss Lizzy"; they were the last covers the band would include on an album, with the exception of Let It Be's brief rendition of the traditional Liverpool folk song "Maggie Mae".[136] The band expanded their use of vocal overdubs on Help! and incorporated classical instruments into some arrangements, including a string quartet on the pop ballad "Yesterday".[137] Composed by and sung by McCartney – none of the other Beatles perform on the recording[138] – "Yesterday" inspired the most cover versions of any song ever written.[139]


The band at a press conference in Minnesota in August 1965, shortly after playing Shea Stadium in New York
The group's third US tour opened with a performance before a world-record crowd of 55,600 at New York's Shea Stadium on 15 August 1965 – "perhaps the most famous of all Beatles' concerts", in Lewisohn's description.[140] A further nine successful concerts followed in other American cities. At a show in Atlanta, the Beatles gave one of the first live performances ever to make use of a foldback system of on-stage monitor speakers.[141] Towards the end of the tour, they met with Elvis Presley, a foundational musical influence on the band, who invited them to his home in Beverly Hills.[142][143] September saw the launch of an American Saturday-morning cartoon series, The Beatles, that echoed A Hard Day's Night's slapstick antics over its two-year original run.[144] The series was a historical milestone as the first weekly television series to feature animated versions of real, living people.[145]

In mid-October 1965, the Beatles entered the recording studio; for the first time when making an album, they had an extended period without other major commitments.[146] Until this time, according to George Martin, "we had been making albums rather like a collection of singles. Now we were really beginning to think about albums as a bit of art on their own."[147] Released in December, Rubber Soul was hailed by critics as a major step forward in the maturity and complexity of the band's music.[148] Their thematic reach was beginning to expand as they embraced deeper aspects of romance and philosophy.[149] Biographers Peter Brown and Steven Gaines attribute the new musical direction to "the Beatles' now habitual use of marijuana",[150] an assertion confirmed by the band – Lennon referred to it as "the pot album",[151] and Starr said: "Grass was really influential in a lot of our changes, especially with the writers. And because they were writing different material, we were playing differently."[151] After Help!'s foray into the world of classical music with flutes and strings, Harrison's introduction of a sitar on "Norwegian Wood (This Bird Has Flown)" marked a further progression outside the traditional boundaries of popular music. As their lyrics grew more artful, fans began to study them for deeper meaning. Of "Norwegian Wood" Lennon commented: "I was trying to be sophisticated in writing about an affair ... but in such a smokescreen way that you couldn't tell."[152]


"Norwegian Wood (This Bird Has Flown)"
Sample of "Norwegian Wood" from Rubber Soul (1965). Harrison's use of a sitar on this song is representative of the Beatles' incorporation of unconventional instrumentation into rock music.[148]
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While many of Rubber Soul's prominent songs were the product of Lennon and McCartney's collaborative songwriting,[153] it also featured distinct compositions from each,[154] though they continued to share official credit. The song "In My Life", of which each later claimed lead authorship, is considered a highlight of the entire Lennon–McCartney catalogue.[155] Harrison called Rubber Soul his "favourite album"[151] and Starr referred to it as "the departure record".[156] McCartney has said, "We'd had our cute period, and now it was time to expand."[157] However, recording engineer Norman Smith later stated that the studio sessions revealed signs of growing conflict within the group – "the clash between John and Paul was becoming obvious", he wrote, and "as far as Paul was concerned, George could do no right".[158] In 2003, Rolling Stone ranked Rubber Soul fifth among "The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time",[159] and AllMusic's Richie Unterberger describes it as "one of the classic folk-rock records".[160]

Controversy, final tour and Revolver
Capitol Records, from December 1963 when it began issuing Beatles recordings for the US market, exercised complete control over format,[80] compiling distinct US albums from the band's recordings and issuing songs of their choosing as singles.[161][nb 6] In June 1966, Yesterday and Today, one of Capitol's compilation albums, caused an uproar with its cover, which portrayed the grinning Beatles dressed in butcher's overalls, accompanied by raw meat and mutilated plastic baby dolls. It has been incorrectly suggested that this was meant as a satirical response to the way Capitol had "butchered" the US versions of their albums.[163] Thousands of copies of the LP had a new cover pasted over the original; an unpeeled "first-state" copy fetched $10,500 at a December 2005 auction.[164] In England, meanwhile, Harrison met sitar maestro Ravi Shankar, who agreed to train him on the instrument.[165]

During a tour of the Philippines the month after the Yesterday and Today furore, the Beatles unintentionally snubbed the nation's first lady, Imelda Marcos, who had expected them to attend a breakfast reception at the Presidential Palace.[166] When presented with the invitation, Epstein politely declined on the band members' behalf, as it had never been his policy to accept such official invitations.[167] They soon found that the Marcos regime was unaccustomed to taking no for an answer. The resulting riots endangered the group and they escaped the country with difficulty.[168] Immediately afterwards, the band members visited India for the first time.[169]

We're more popular than Jesus now; I don't know which will go first – rock 'n' roll or Christianity.
– John Lennon, 1966[170]
Almost as soon as they returned home, the Beatles faced a fierce backlash from US religious and social conservatives (as well as the Ku Klux Klan) over a comment Lennon had made in a March interview with British reporter Maureen Cleave.[171] "Christianity will go," Lennon had said. "It will vanish and shrink. I needn't argue about that; I'm right and I will be proved right. ... Jesus was alright but his disciples were thick and ordinary. It's them twisting it that ruins it for me."[172] The comment went virtually unnoticed in England, but when US teenage fan magazine Datebook printed it five months later – on the eve of the group's August US tour – it sparked a controversy with Christians in the American "Bible Belt".[171] The Vatican issued a protest, and bans on Beatles' records were imposed by Spanish and Dutch stations and South Africa's national broadcasting service.[173] Epstein accused Datebook of having taken Lennon's words out of context; at a press conference Lennon pointed out, "If I'd said television was more popular than Jesus, I might have got away with it."[174] Lennon claimed that he was referring to how other people viewed their success, but at the prompting of reporters, he concluded: "If you want me to apologise, if that will make you happy, then okay, I'm sorry."[174]

As preparations were made for the US tour, the Beatles knew that their music would hardly be heard. Having originally used Vox AC30 amplifiers, they later acquired more powerful 100-watt amplifiers, specially designed by Vox for them as they moved into larger venues in 1964, but these were still inadequate. Struggling to compete with the volume of sound generated by screaming fans, the band had grown increasingly bored with the routine of performing live.[175] Recognising that their shows were no longer about the music, they decided to make the August tour their last.[176]


"Eleanor Rigby"
Sample of "Eleanor Rigby" from Revolver (1966). The album involves innovative compositional approaches, arrangements and recording techniques. This song, primarily written by McCartney, prominently features classical strings in a novel fusion of musical styles.
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Rubber Soul had marked a major step forward; Revolver, released in August 1966 a week before the Beatles' final tour, marked another.[177] Pitchfork's Scott Plagenhoef identifies it as "the sound of a band growing into supreme confidence" and "redefining what was expected from popular music".[178] Revolver featured sophisticated songwriting, studio experimentation, and a greatly expanded repertoire of musical styles, ranging from innovative classical string arrangements to psychedelic rock.[177] Abandoning the customary group photograph, its cover – designed by Klaus Voormann, a friend of the band since their Hamburg days – "was a stark, arty, black-and-white collage that caricatured the Beatles in a pen-and-ink style beholden to Aubrey Beardsley", in Gould's description.[177] The album was preceded by the single "Paperback Writer", backed by "Rain".[179] Short promotional films were made for both songs; described by cultural historian Saul Austerlitz as "among the first true music videos",[180] they aired on The Ed Sullivan Show and Top of the Pops in June 1966.[181]


San Francisco's Candlestick Park (pictured in its 1960s configuration) was the venue for the Beatles' final concert before a paying audience.
Among the experimental songs that Revolver featured was "Tomorrow Never Knows", the lyrics for which Lennon drew from Timothy Leary's The Psychedelic Experience: A Manual Based on the Tibetan Book of the Dead. Its creation involved eight tape decks distributed about the EMI building, each staffed by an engineer or band member, who randomly varied the movement of a tape loop while Martin created a composite recording by sampling the incoming data.[182] McCartney's "Eleanor Rigby" made prominent use of a string octet; Gould describes it as "a true hybrid, conforming to no recognisable style or genre of song".[183] Harrison was developing as a songwriter, and three of his compositions earned a place on the record.[184] In 2003, Rolling Stone ranked Revolver as the third greatest album of all time.[159] During the US tour that followed its release, however, the band performed none of its songs.[185] As Chris Ingham writes, they were very much "studio creations ... and there was no way a four-piece rock 'n' roll group could do them justice, particularly through the desensitising wall of the fans' screams. 'Live Beatles' and 'Studio Beatles' had become entirely different beasts."[186] The band's concert at San Francisco's Candlestick Park on 29 August was their last commercial concert.[187] It marked the end of a four-year period dominated by almost nonstop touring that included over 1,400 concert appearances internationally.[188]

1966–1970: Studio years
Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band

Front cover of Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, "the most famous cover of any music album, and one of the most imitated images in the world"[189]
Freed from the burden of touring, the Beatles embraced an increasingly experimental approach as they recorded Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, beginning in late November 1966.[190] According to engineer Geoff Emerick, the album's recording took over 700 hours.[191] He recalled the band's insistence "that everything on Sgt. Pepper had to be different. We had microphones right down in the bells of brass instruments and headphones turned into microphones attached to violins. We used giant primitive oscillators to vary the speed of instruments and vocals and we had tapes chopped to pieces and stuck together upside down and the wrong way around."[192] Parts of "A Day in the Life" featured a 40-piece orchestra.[192] The sessions initially yielded the non-album double A-side single "Strawberry Fields Forever"/"Penny Lane" in February 1967;[193] the Sgt. Pepper LP followed in June.[194] The musical complexity of the records, created using relatively primitive four-track recording technology, astounded contemporary artists.[189] Among music critics, acclaim for the album was virtually universal.[195] Gould writes:

The overwhelming consensus is that the Beatles had created a popular masterpiece: a rich, sustained, and overflowing work of collaborative genius whose bold ambition and startling originality dramatically enlarged the possibilities and raised the expectations of what the experience of listening to popular music on record could be. On the basis of this perception, Sgt. Pepper became the catalyst for an explosion of mass enthusiasm for album-formatted rock that would revolutionise both the aesthetics and the economics of the record business in ways that far outstripped the earlier pop explosions triggered by the Elvis phenomenon of 1956 and the Beatlemania phenomenon of 1963.[196]

Sgt. Pepper was the first major pop/rock LP to include its complete lyrics, which appeared on the back cover.[197][198] Those lyrics were the subject of critical analysis; for instance, in late 1967 the album was the subject of a scholarly inquiry by American literary critic and professor of English Richard Poirier, who observed that his students were "listening to the group's music with a degree of engagement that he, as a teacher of literature, could only envy".[199] Poirier identified what he termed its "mixed allusiveness": "It's unwise ever to assume that they're doing only one thing or expressing themselves in only one style ... one kind of feeling about a subject isn't enough ... any single induced feeling must often exist within the context of seemingly contradictory alternatives."[199] McCartney said at the time: "We write songs. We know what we mean by them. But in a week someone else says something about it, and you can't deny it. ... You put your own meaning at your own level to our songs."[199] The album's elaborate cover also attracted considerable interest and study.[200] A collage designed by pop artists Peter Blake and Jann Haworth, it depicted the group as the fictional band referred to in the album's title track[201] standing in front of a crowd of famous people.[202] The heavy moustaches worn by the group reflected the growing influence of hippie style,[203] while cultural historian Jonathan Harris describes their "brightly coloured parodies of military uniforms" as a knowingly "anti-authoritarian and anti-establishment" display.[204] In 2003, Rolling Stone ranked it number one on its list of the "500 Greatest Albums of All Time".[159]

Brian Epstein was dead ... Paul and George were in complete shock. I don't think it could have been worse if they had heard that their own fathers had dropped dead ... Brian had found them, believed in them, molded them, turned them into millionaires, and made them famous the world over ... We knew that life would never be the same again.
– Pattie Boyd, wife of George Harrison[205]
On 25 June 1967, the Beatles performed their forthcoming single, "All You Need Is Love", to an estimated 350 million viewers on Our World, the first live global television link.[206] Released a week later, during the Summer of Love, the song was adopted as a flower power anthem.[207] Two months later, the group suffered a loss that threw their career into turmoil. Having been introduced to Maharishi Mahesh Yogi only the previous night in London, on 25 August they travelled to Bangor for his Transcendental Meditation retreat. Two days later, their manager's assistant, Peter Brown, phoned to inform them that Epstein, only thirty-two years old, had died.[208] The coroner ruled the death an accidental carbitol overdose, although it was widely rumoured to be a suicide.[209] Epstein had been in a fragile emotional state, stressed by personal troubles.[nb 7] His death left the group disoriented and fearful about the future. Lennon recalled: "We collapsed. I knew that we were in trouble then. I didn't really have any misconceptions about our ability to do anything other than play music, and I was scared. I thought, 'We've had it now.'"[211]

Magical Mystery Tour, the White Album and Yellow Submarine

Filming a sequence from the Magical Mystery Tour film
Magical Mystery Tour, the soundtrack to a forthcoming Beatles television film, was released in the UK as a six-track double extended play disc (EP) in early December 1967.[80][212] In the United States, the six songs were issued on an identically titled LP that also included five tracks from the band's recent singles.[102] Unterberger says of the US Magical Mystery Tour, "the psychedelic sound is very much in the vein of Sgt. Pepper, and even spacier in parts (especially the sound collages of 'I Am the Walrus')" and he calls its five songs culled from the band's 1967 singles "huge, glorious, and innovative".[213] In its first three weeks, the album set a record for the highest initial sales of any Capitol LP, and it is the only Capitol compilation later to be adopted in the band's official canon of studio albums.[214] First aired on Boxing Day, the Magical Mystery Tour film, largely directed by McCartney, brought the group their first major negative UK press. It was dismissed as "blatant rubbish" by the Daily Express; the Daily Mail called it "a colossal conceit"; and The Guardian labelled the film "a kind of fantasy morality play about the grossness and warmth and stupidity of the audience".[215] Gould describes it as "a great deal of raw footage showing a group of people getting on, getting off, and riding on a bus".[215] Although the viewership figures were respectable, its slating in the press led US television networks to lose interest in broadcasting the film.[216]

In January 1968, the Beatles filmed a cameo for the animated movie Yellow Submarine, which featured cartoon versions of the band members and a soundtrack with eleven of their songs, including four unreleased studio recordings that made their debut in the film.[217] Released in June 1968, the film was praised by critics for its music, humour and innovative visual style.[218] It would be seven months, however, before its soundtrack album appeared.[219]


The Beatles, known as the White Album for its minimalist cover, conceived by pop artist Richard Hamilton "in direct contrast to Sgt. Pepper", while also suggesting a "clean slate"[220]
In the interim came The Beatles, a double LP commonly known as the White Album for its virtually featureless cover.[221] Creative inspiration for the album came from a new direction: without Epstein's guiding presence, the group had briefly turned to Maharishi Mahesh Yogi as their guru.[222] At his ashram in Rishikesh, India, a "Guide Course" scheduled for three months marked one of their most prolific periods, yielding numerous songs including a majority of the 30 included on the album.[223] However, Starr left after only ten days, likening it to Butlins, and McCartney eventually grew bored and departed a month later.[224] For Lennon and Harrison, creativity turned to questioning when an electronics technician known as Magic Alex suggested that the Maharishi was attempting to manipulate them.[222] When he alleged that the Maharishi had made sexual advances to women attendees, a persuaded Lennon left abruptly just two months into the course, bringing an unconvinced Harrison and the remainder of the group's entourage with him.[224] In anger, Lennon wrote a scathing song titled "Maharishi", renamed "Sexy Sadie" to avoid potential legal issues. McCartney said, "We made a mistake. We thought there was more to him than there was."[222]

During recording sessions for the White Album, which stretched from late May to mid-October 1968, relations between the Beatles grew openly divisive.[225] Starr quit for two weeks, and McCartney took over the drum kit for "Back in the U.S.S.R." (on which Harrison and Lennon drummed as well) and "Dear Prudence".[226] Lennon had lost interest in collaborating with McCartney,[227] whose contribution "Ob-La-Di, Ob-La-Da" he scorned as "granny music shit".[228] Tensions were further aggravated by Lennon's romantic preoccupation with avant-garde artist Yoko Ono, whom he insisted on bringing to the sessions despite the group's well-established understanding that girlfriends were not allowed in the studio.[229] Describing the double album, Lennon later said: "Every track is an individual track; there isn't any Beatle music on it. [It's] John and the band, Paul and the band, George and the band."[230] McCartney has recalled that the album "wasn't a pleasant one to make".[231] Both he and Lennon identified the sessions as the start of the band's break-up.[232][233]

Issued in November, the White Album was the band's first Apple Records album release, although EMI continued to own their recordings.[234] The new label was a subsidiary of Apple Corps, which Epstein had formed as part of his plan to create a tax-effective business structure.[235] The record attracted more than 2 million advance orders, selling nearly 4 million copies in the US in little over a month, and its tracks dominated the playlists of American radio stations.[236] Despite its popularity, it did not receive flattering reviews at the time. According to Gould:

The critical response ... ranged from mixed to flat. In marked contrast to Sgt. Pepper, which had helped to establish an entire genre of literate rock criticism, the White Album inspired no critical writing of any note. Even the most sympathetic reviewers ... clearly didn't know what to make of this shapeless outpouring of songs. Newsweek's Hubert Saal, citing the high proportion of parodies, accused the group of getting their tongues caught in their cheeks.[236]

General critical opinion eventually turned in favour of the White Album, and in 2003, Rolling Stone ranked it as the tenth greatest album of all time.[159] Pitchfork's Mark Richardson describes it as "large and sprawling, overflowing with ideas but also with indulgences, and filled with a hugely variable array of material ... its failings are as essential to its character as its triumphs."[237] Erlewine comments: "The [band's] two main songwriting forces were no longer on the same page, but neither were George and Ringo", yet "Lennon turns in two of his best ballads", McCartney's songs are "stunning", Harrison had become "a songwriter who deserved wider exposure", and Starr's composition was "a delight".[238]

The Yellow Submarine LP, issued in January 1969, contained only the four previously unreleased songs that had debuted in the film, along with the title track (already issued on Revolver), "All You Need Is Love" (already issued as a single and on the US Magical Mystery Tour LP) and seven instrumental pieces composed by Martin.[219] Because of the paucity of new Beatles music, AllMusic's Unterberger and Bruce Eder suggest the album might be "inessential" but for Harrison's "It's All Too Much": "the jewel of the new songs ... resplendent in swirling Mellotron [sic], larger-than-life percussion, and tidal waves of feedback guitar ... a virtuoso excursion into otherwise hazy psychedelia".[239]

Abbey Road, Let It Be and separation
Although Let It Be was the Beatles' final album release, it was largely recorded before Abbey Road. The project's impetus came from an idea Martin attributes to McCartney, who suggested they "record an album of new material and rehearse it, then perform it before a live audience for the very first time – on record and on film".[240] Originally intended for a one-hour television programme to be called Beatles at Work, in the event much of the album's content came from studio work beginning in January 1969, many hours of which were captured on film by director Michael Lindsay-Hogg.[240][241] Martin has said that the project was "not at all a happy recording experience. It was a time when relations between the Beatles were at their lowest ebb."[240] Lennon described the largely impromptu sessions as "hell ... the most miserable ... on Earth", and Harrison, "the low of all-time".[242] Irritated by both McCartney and Lennon, Harrison walked out for five days. Upon returning, he threatened to leave the band unless they "abandon[ed] all talk of live performance" and instead focused on finishing a new album, initially titled Get Back, using songs recorded for the TV special.[243] He also demanded they cease work at Twickenham Film Studios, where the sessions had begun, and relocate to the newly finished Apple Studio. The other band members agreed, and the idea came about to salvage the footage shot for the TV production for use in a feature film.[244]


American soul musician Billy Preston (pictured in 1971) was, for a short time, considered a fifth Beatle during the recording of Get Back.
In an effort to alleviate tensions within the band and improve the quality of their live sound, Harrison invited keyboardist Billy Preston to participate in the last nine days of sessions.[245] Preston received label billing on the "Get Back" single – the only musician ever to receive that acknowledgment on an official Beatles release.[246] At the conclusion of the rehearsals, the band could not agree on a location to film a concert, rejecting several ideas, including a boat at sea, a lunatic asylum, the Tunisian desert, and the Colosseum.[240] Ultimately, what would be their final live performance was filmed on the rooftop of the Apple Corps building at 3 Savile Row, London, on 30 January 1969.[247] Five weeks later, engineer Glyn Johns, whom Lewisohn describes as Get Back's "uncredited producer", began work assembling an album, given "free rein" as the band "all but washed their hands of the entire project".[248]

A terrace house with four floors and an attic. It is red brick, with a slate roof, and the ground floor rendered in imitation of stone and painted white. Each upper floor has four sash windows, divided into small panes. The door, with a canopy over it, occupies the place of the second window from the left on the ground floor.
Apple Corps building at 3 Savile Row, site of the Let It Be rooftop concert
New strains developed between the band members regarding the appointment of a financial adviser, the need for which had become evident without Epstein to manage business affairs. Lennon, Harrison and Starr favoured Allen Klein, who had managed the Rolling Stones and Sam Cooke;[249] McCartney wanted Lee and John Eastman – father and brother, respectively, of Linda Eastman,[250] whom McCartney married on 12 March.[251] Agreement could not be reached, so both Klein and the Eastmans were temporarily appointed: Klein as the Beatles' business manager and the Eastmans as their lawyers.[252][253] Further conflict ensued, however, and financial opportunities were lost.[249] On 8 May, Klein was named sole manager of the band,[254] the Eastmans having previously been dismissed as the Beatles' lawyers. McCartney refused to sign the management contract with Klein, but he was out-voted by the other Beatles.[255]

Martin stated that he was surprised when McCartney asked him to produce another album, as the Get Back sessions had been "a miserable experience" and he had "thought it was the end of the road for all of us".[256] The primary recording sessions for Abbey Road began on 2 July 1969.[257] Lennon, who rejected Martin's proposed format of a "continuously moving piece of music", wanted his and McCartney's songs to occupy separate sides of the album.[258] The eventual format, with individually composed songs on the first side and the second consisting largely of a medley, was McCartney's suggested compromise.[258] On 4 July, the first solo single by a Beatle was released: Lennon's "Give Peace a Chance", credited to the Plastic Ono Band. The completion and mixing of "I Want You (She's So Heavy)" on 20 August 1969 was the last occasion on which all four Beatles were together in the same studio.[259] Lennon announced his departure to the rest of the group on 20 September, but agreed to withhold a public announcement to avoid undermining sales of the forthcoming album.[260]

Released six days after Lennon's declaration, Abbey Road sold 4 million copies within three months and topped the UK charts for a total of seventeen weeks.[261] Its second track, the ballad "Something", was issued as a single – the only Harrison composition ever to appear as a Beatles A-side.[262] Abbey Road received mixed reviews, although the medley met with general acclaim.[261] Unterberger considers it "a fitting swan song for the group", containing "some of the greatest harmonies to be heard on any rock record".[263] Musicologist and author Ian MacDonald calls the album "erratic and often hollow", despite the "semblance of unity and coherence" offered by the medley.[264] Martin has singled it out as his personal favourite of all the band's albums; Lennon said it was "competent" but had "no life in it". Recording engineer Emerick notes that the replacement of the studio's valve mixing console with a transistorised one yielded a less punchy sound, leaving the group frustrated at the thinner tone and lack of impact and contributing to its "kinder, gentler" feel relative to their previous albums.[265]

For the still unfinished Get Back album, one last song, Harrison's "I Me Mine", was recorded on 3 January 1970. Lennon, in Denmark at the time, did not participate.[266] In March, rejecting the work Johns had done on the project, now retitled Let It Be, Klein gave the session tapes to American producer Phil Spector, who had recently produced Lennon's solo single "Instant Karma!"[267] In addition to remixing the material, Spector edited, spliced and overdubbed several of the recordings that had been intended as "live". McCartney was unhappy with the producer's approach and particularly dissatisfied with the lavish orchestration on "The Long and Winding Road", which involved a fourteen-voice choir and 36-piece instrumental ensemble.[268] McCartney's demands that the alterations to the song be reverted were ignored,[269] and he publicly announced his departure from the band on 10 April 1970, a week before the release of his first, self-titled solo album.[268][270]

On 8 May, the Spector-produced Let It Be was released. Its accompanying single, "The Long and Winding Road", was the Beatles' last; it was released in the United States, but not in the UK.[179] The Let It Be documentary film followed later that month, and would win the 1970 Academy Award for Best Original Song Score.[271] Sunday Telegraph critic Penelope Gilliatt called it "a very bad film and a touching one ... about the breaking apart of this reassuring, geometrically perfect, once apparently ageless family of siblings".[272] Several reviewers stated that some of the performances in the film sounded better than their analogous album tracks.[273] Describing Let It Be as the "only Beatles album to occasion negative, even hostile reviews", Unterberger calls it "on the whole underrated"; he singles out "some good moments of straight hard rock in 'I've Got a Feeling' and 'Dig a Pony'", and praises "Let It Be", "Get Back", and "the folky 'Two of Us', with John and Paul harmonising together".[274]

McCartney filed suit for the dissolution of the Beatles' contractual partnership on 31 December 1970.[275] Legal disputes continued long after their break-up, and the dissolution was not formalised until 29 December 1974,[276] when Lennon signed the paperwork terminating the partnership while on vacation with his family at Walt Disney World Resort in Florida.[277]

1970–present: After the break-up
See also: Collaborations between ex-Beatles
1970s


Lennon in 1975 and McCartney in 1976
Lennon, McCartney, Harrison and Starr all released solo albums in 1970. Their solo records sometimes involved one or more of the others;[278] Starr's Ringo (1973) was the only album to include compositions and performances by all four ex-Beatles, albeit on separate songs. With Starr's participation, Harrison staged the Concert for Bangladesh in New York City in August 1971.[279] Other than an unreleased jam session in 1974, later bootlegged as A Toot and a Snore in '74, Lennon and McCartney never recorded together again.[280]

Two double-LP sets of the Beatles' greatest hits, compiled by Klein, 1962–1966 and 1967–1970, were released in 1973, at first under the Apple Records imprint.[281] Commonly known as the "Red Album" and "Blue Album", respectively, each have earned a Multi-Platinum certification in the United States and a Platinum certification in the United Kingdom.[282][283] Between 1976 and 1982, EMI/Capitol released a wave of compilation albums without input from the ex-Beatles, starting with the double-disc compilation Rock 'n' Roll Music.[284] The only one to feature previously unreleased material was The Beatles at the Hollywood Bowl (1977); the first officially issued concert recordings by the group, it contained selections from two shows they played during their 1964 and 1965 US tours.[285][nb 8]

The music and enduring fame of the Beatles was commercially exploited in various other ways, again often outside their creative control. In April 1974, the musical John, Paul, George, Ringo ... and Bert, written by Willy Russell and featuring singer Barbara Dickson, opened in London. It included, with permission from Northern Songs, eleven Lennon-McCartney compositions and one by Harrison, "Here Comes the Sun". Displeased with the production's use of his song, Harrison withdrew his permission to use it.[287] Later that year, the off-Broadway musical Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band on the Road opened.[288] All This and World War II (1976) was an unorthodox nonfiction film that combined newsreel footage with covers of Beatles songs by performers ranging from Elton John and Keith Moon to the London Symphony Orchestra.[289] The Broadway musical Beatlemania, an unauthorised nostalgia revue, opened in early 1977 and proved popular, spinning off five separate touring productions.[290] In 1979, the band sued the producers, settling for several million dollars in damages.[290] Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band (1978), a musical film starring the Bee Gees and Peter Frampton, was a commercial failure and an "artistic fiasco", according to Ingham.[291]

A wave of Beatles nostalgia and persistent reunion rumours in the United States during the 1970s led several entrepreneurs to make public offers to the Beatles for a reunion concert. Promoter Bill Sargent first offered the Beatles $10 million for a reunion concert in 1974. He raised his offer to $30 million in January 1976 and then to $50 million the following month.[292][293] On 24 April 1976, during a broadcast of Saturday Night Live, producer Lorne Michaels offered the Beatles $3,000 to reunite on the show. Lennon and McCartney were watching the live broadcast at Lennon's apartment at the Dakota in New York, which was within walking distance of the NBC studio where the show was being broadcast. The former bandmates briefly entertained the idea of going to the studio and surprising Michaels by accepting his offer, but decided not to.[294] In June, entrepreneur Alan Amron created the International Committee to Reunite the Beatles, asking Beatles fans worldwide to send in one dollar to then offer the money to the Beatles to reunite.[295][296] Concert promoter Sid Bernstein ran full-page newspaper advertisements in September, inviting the Beatles to reunite for a concert that would raise $230 million for charity.[297][298][299] In January 1977, Amron partnered with boxer Muhammad Ali for a proposal to the Beatles to reunite to help create a $200 million charity fund.[300][301] In March 1978, an environmental group called Project Interspeak announced to the media that they were planning a concert to raise money for anti-whaling efforts and suggested the Beatles would participate.[302][303][304] Bernstein again appealed to the Beatles with a full-page newspaper advertisement in September 1979, asking them to perform three concerts to benefit the Vietnamese boat people.[305] At the same time another effort to reunite the Beatles for the same cause was sponsored by United Nations Secretary-General Kurt Waldheim. Those discussions led to the Concerts for the People of Kampuchea in December featuring Wings but not the rumoured Beatles reunion.[306]

1980s


Harrison and Starr performing at the Prince's Trust All-Star Rock Concert at Wembley Arena, 1987
In December 1980, Lennon was shot and killed outside his New York City apartment. Harrison rewrote the lyrics of his song "All Those Years Ago" in Lennon's honour. With Starr on drums and McCartney and his wife, Linda, contributing backing vocals, the song was released as a single in May 1981.[307] McCartney's own tribute, "Here Today", appeared on his Tug of War album in April 1982.[308] In 1987, Harrison's Cloud Nine album included "When We Was Fab", a song about the Beatlemania era.[309]

When the Beatles' studio albums were released on CD by EMI and Apple Corps in 1987, their catalogue was standardised throughout the world, establishing a canon of the twelve original studio LPs as issued in the UK plus the US LP version of Magical Mystery Tour.[310] All the remaining material from the singles and EPs that had not appeared on these thirteen studio albums was gathered on the two-volume compilation Past Masters (1988). Except for the Red and Blue albums, EMI deleted all its other Beatles compilations – including the Hollywood Bowl record – from its catalogue.[285]

In 1988, the Beatles were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, their first year of eligibility. Harrison and Starr attended the ceremony with Lennon's widow, Yoko Ono, and his two sons, Julian and Sean.[311][312] McCartney declined to attend, citing unresolved "business differences" that would make him "feel like a complete hypocrite waving and smiling with them at a fake reunion".[312] The following year, EMI/Capitol settled a decade-long lawsuit filed by the band over royalties, clearing the way to commercially package previously unreleased material.[313][314]

1990s
Live at the BBC, the first official release of unissued Beatles performances in seventeen years, appeared in 1994.[315] That same year McCartney, Harrison and Starr collaborated on the Anthology project. Anthology was the culmination of work begun in 1970, when Apple Corps director Neil Aspinall, their former road manager and personal assistant, had started to gather material for a documentary with the working title The Long and Winding Road.[316] Documenting their history in the band's own words, the Anthology project included the release of several unissued Beatles recordings. McCartney, Harrison and Starr also added new instrumental and vocal parts to two songs recorded as demos by Lennon in the late 1970s.[317]

During 1995–96, the project yielded a television miniseries, an eight-volume video set, and three two-CD/three-LP box sets featuring artwork by Klaus Voormann. The two songs based on Lennon demos, "Free as a Bird" and "Real Love", were issued as new Beatles singles. The releases were commercially successful and the television series was viewed by an estimated 400 million people.[318] In 1999, to coincide with the re-release of the 1968 film Yellow Submarine, an expanded soundtrack album, Yellow Submarine Songtrack, was issued.[319]

2000s
The Beatles' 1, a compilation album of the band's British and American number-one hits, was released on 13 November 2000. It became the fastest-selling album of all time, with 3.6 million sold in its first week[320] and 13 million within a month.[321] It topped albums charts in at least 28 countries.[322] As of April 2009, the compilation had sold 31 million copies globally,[323] and is the best-selling album of that decade in the United States.[324]

Harrison died from metastatic lung cancer in November 2001.[325][326][327] McCartney and Starr were among the musicians who performed at the Concert for George, organised by Eric Clapton and Harrison's widow, Olivia. The tribute event took place at the Royal Albert Hall on the first anniversary of Harrison's death.[328]

In 2003, Let It Be... Naked, a reconceived version of the Let It Be album, with McCartney supervising production, was released. One of the main differences from the Spector-produced version was the omission of the original string arrangements.[329] It was a top ten hit in both Britain and America. The US album configurations from 1964 to 1965 were released as box sets in 2004 and 2006; The Capitol Albums, Volume 1 and Volume 2 included both stereo and mono versions based on the mixes that were prepared for vinyl at the time of the music's original American release.[330]

As a soundtrack for Cirque du Soleil's Las Vegas Beatles stage revue, Love, George Martin and his son Giles remixed and blended 130 of the band's recordings to create what Martin called "a way of re-living the whole Beatles musical lifespan in a very condensed period".[331] The show premiered in June 2006, and the Love album was released that November.[332] In April 2009, Starr performed three songs with McCartney at a benefit concert held at New York's Radio City Music Hall and organised by McCartney.[333]

A photograph of two older men, one using a microphone, in front of a large electronic display
Starr and McCartney introduced the video game The Beatles: Rock Band at the 2009 E3 convention.
On 9 September 2009, the Beatles' entire back catalogue was reissued following an extensive digital remastering process that lasted four years.[310] Stereo editions of all twelve original UK studio albums, along with Magical Mystery Tour and the Past Masters compilation, were released on compact disc both individually and as a box set.[334] A second collection, The Beatles in Mono, included remastered versions of every Beatles album released in true mono along with the original 1965 stereo mixes of Help! and Rubber Soul (both of which Martin had remixed for the 1987 editions).[335] The Beatles: Rock Band, a music video game in the Rock Band series, was issued on the same day.[336] In December 2009, the band's catalogue was officially released in FLAC and MP3 format in a limited edition of 30,000 USB flash drives.[337]

2010s
Owing to a long-running royalty disagreement, the Beatles were among the last major artists to sign deals with online music services.[338] Residual disagreement emanating from Apple Corps' dispute with Apple, Inc., iTunes' owners, over the use of the name "Apple" was also partly responsible for the delay, although in 2008, McCartney stated that the main obstacle to making the Beatles' catalogue available online was that EMI "want[s] something we're not prepared to give them".[339] In 2010, the official canon of thirteen Beatles studio albums, Past Masters, and the "Red: and "Blue" greatest-hits albums were made available on iTunes.[340]

In 2012, EMI's recorded music operations were sold to Universal Music Group. In order for Universal Music to acquire EMI, the European Union, for antitrust reasons, forced EMI to spin off assets including Parlophone. Universal was allowed to keep the Beatles' recorded music catalogue, managed by Capitol Records under its Capitol Music Group division.[341] The entire original Beatles album catalogue was also reissued on vinyl in 2012; available either individually or as a box set.[342]

In 2013, a second volume of BBC recordings, titled On Air – Live at the BBC Volume 2, was released. That December saw the release of another 59 Beatles recordings on iTunes. The set, titled The Beatles Bootleg Recordings 1963, had the opportunity to gain a 70-year copyright extension conditional on the songs being published at least once before the end of 2013. Apple Records released the recordings on 17 December to prevent them from going into the public domain and had them taken down from iTunes later that same day. Fan reactions to the release were mixed, with one blogger saying "the hardcore Beatles collectors who are trying to obtain everything will already have these."[343][344]

On 26 January 2014, McCartney and Starr performed together at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards, held at the Staples Center in Los Angeles.[345] The following day, The Night That Changed America: A Grammy Salute to The Beatles television special was taped in the Los Angeles Convention Center's West Hall. It aired on 9 February, the exact date of – and at the same time, and on the same network as – the original broadcast of the Beatles' first US television appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show, 50 years earlier. The special included performances of Beatles songs by current artists as well as by McCartney and Starr, archival footage, and interviews with the two surviving ex-Beatles carried out by David Letterman at the Ed Sullivan Theater.[346][347]

In December 2015, the Beatles released their catalogue for streaming on various streaming music services.[348] On 18 May 2017, Sirius XM Radio launched a 24/7 radio channel, The Beatles Channel. A week later, Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band was reissued with new stereo mixes and unreleased material for the album's 50th anniversary.[349] Similar box sets were released for The Beatles, in November 2018,[350] and Abbey Road, in September 2019.[351]

Musical style and development
See also: Lennon–McCartney
In Icons of Rock: An Encyclopedia of the Legends Who Changed Music Forever, Scott Schinder and Andy Schwartz describe the Beatles' musical evolution:

In their initial incarnation as cheerful, wisecracking moptops, the Fab Four revolutionised the sound, style, and attitude of popular music and opened rock and roll's doors to a tidal wave of British rock acts. Their initial impact would have been enough to establish the Beatles as one of their era's most influential cultural forces, but they didn't stop there. Although their initial style was a highly original, irresistibly catchy synthesis of early American rock and roll and R&B, the Beatles spent the rest of the 1960s expanding rock's stylistic frontiers, consistently staking out new musical territory on each release. The band's increasingly sophisticated experimentation encompassed a variety of genres, including folk-rock, country, psychedelia, and baroque pop, without sacrificing the effortless mass appeal of their early work.[352]

In The Beatles as Musicians, Walter Everett describes Lennon and McCartney's contrasting motivations and approaches to composition: "McCartney may be said to have constantly developed – as a means to entertain – a focused musical talent with an ear for counterpoint and other aspects of craft in the demonstration of a universally agreed-upon common language that he did much to enrich. Conversely, Lennon's mature music is best appreciated as the daring product of a largely unconscious, searching but undisciplined artistic sensibility."[353]

Ian MacDonald describes McCartney as "a natural melodist – a creator of tunes capable of existing apart from their harmony". His melody lines are characterised as primarily "vertical", employing wide, consonant intervals which express his "extrovert energy and optimism". Conversely, Lennon's "sedentary, ironic personality" is reflected in a "horizontal" approach featuring minimal, dissonant intervals and repetitive melodies which rely on their harmonic accompaniment for interest: "Basically a realist, he instinctively kept his melodies close to the rhythms and cadences of speech, colouring his lyrics with bluesy tone and harmony rather than creating tunes that made striking shapes of their own."[354] MacDonald praises Harrison's lead guitar work for the role his "characterful lines and textural colourings" play in supporting Lennon and McCartney's parts, and describes Starr as "the father of modern pop/rock drumming".[355]

Influences
The band's earliest influences include Elvis Presley, Carl Perkins, Little Richard and Chuck Berry.[356] During the Beatles' co-residency with Little Richard at the Star-Club in Hamburg, from April to May 1962, he advised them on the proper technique for performing his songs.[357] Of Presley, Lennon said, "Nothing really affected me until I heard Elvis. If there hadn't been Elvis, there would not have been the Beatles."[358]

Other early influences include Buddy Holly, Eddie Cochran, Roy Orbison[359] and the Everly Brothers.[360] The Beatles continued to absorb influences long after their initial success, often finding new musical and lyrical avenues by listening to their contemporaries, including Bob Dylan, the Who, Frank Zappa, the Lovin' Spoonful, the Byrds and the Beach Boys, whose 1966 album Pet Sounds amazed and inspired McCartney.[361][362][363][364] Referring to the Beach Boys' creative leader, Martin later stated: "No one made a greater impact on the Beatles than Brian [Wilson]."[365] Ravi Shankar, with whom Harrison studied for six weeks in India in late 1966, had a significant effect on his musical development during the band's later years.[366]

Genres
Originating as a skiffle group, the Beatles quickly embraced 1950s rock and roll and helped pioneer the Merseybeat genre,[367] and their repertoire ultimately expanded to include a broad variety of pop music.[368] Reflecting the range of styles they explored, Lennon said of Beatles for Sale, "You could call our new one a Beatles country-and-western LP",[369] while Gould credits Rubber Soul as "the instrument by which legions of folk-music enthusiasts were coaxed into the camp of pop".[370]

Two electric guitars, a light brown violin-shaped bass and a darker brown guitar, resting against a Vox amplifier
A Höfner "violin" bass guitar and Gretsch Country Gentleman guitar, models played by McCartney and Harrison, respectively; the Vox AC30 amplifier behind them is the model the Beatles used during performances in the early 1960s.
Although the 1965 song "Yesterday" was not the first pop record to employ orchestral strings, it marked the group's first recorded use of classical music elements. Gould observes: "The more traditional sound of strings allowed for a fresh appreciation of their talent as composers by listeners who were otherwise allergic to the din of drums and electric guitars."[371] They continued to experiment with string arrangements to various effect; Sgt. Pepper's "She's Leaving Home", for instance, is "cast in the mold of a sentimental Victorian ballad", Gould writes, "its words and music filled with the clichés of musical melodrama".[372]

The band's stylistic range expanded in another direction with their 1966 B-side "Rain", described by Martin Strong as "the first overtly psychedelic Beatles record".[373] Other psychedelic numbers followed, such as "Tomorrow Never Knows" (recorded before "Rain"), "Strawberry Fields Forever", "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds" and "I Am the Walrus". The influence of Indian classical music was evident in Harrison's "The Inner Light", "Love You To" and "Within You Without You" – Gould describes the latter two as attempts "to replicate the raga form in miniature".[374]

Innovation was the most striking feature of their creative evolution, according to music historian and pianist Michael Campbell: "'A Day in the Life' encapsulates the art and achievement of the Beatles as well as any single track can. It highlights key features of their music: the sound imagination, the persistence of tuneful melody, and the close coordination between words and music. It represents a new category of song – more sophisticated than pop ... and uniquely innovative. There literally had never before been a song – classical or vernacular – that had blended so many disparate elements so imaginatively."[375] Philosophy professor Bruce Ellis Benson agrees: "the Beatles ... give us a wonderful example of how such far-ranging influences as Celtic music, rhythm and blues, and country and western could be put together in a new way."[376]

Author Dominic Pedler describes the way they crossed musical styles: "Far from moving sequentially from one genre to another (as is sometimes conveniently suggested) the group maintained in parallel their mastery of the traditional, catchy chart hit while simultaneously forging rock and dabbling with a wide range of peripheral influences from country to vaudeville. One of these threads was their take on folk music, which would form such essential groundwork for their later collisions with Indian music and philosophy."[377] As the personal relationships between the band members grew increasingly strained, their individual tastes became more apparent. The minimalistic cover artwork for the White Album contrasted with the complexity and diversity of its music, which encompassed Lennon's "Revolution 9" (whose musique concrète approach was influenced by Yoko Ono), Starr's country song "Don't Pass Me By", Harrison's rock ballad "While My Guitar Gently Weeps", and the "proto-metal roar" of McCartney's "Helter Skelter".[238]

Contribution of George Martin

Martin (second from right) in the studio with the Beatles in the mid-1960s
George Martin's close involvement in his role as producer made him one of the leading candidates for the informal title of the "fifth Beatle".[378] He applied his classical musical training in various ways, and functioned as "an informal music teacher" to the progressing songwriters, according to Gould.[379] Martin suggested to a sceptical McCartney that the arrangement of "Yesterday" should feature a string quartet accompaniment, thereby introducing the Beatles to a "hitherto unsuspected world of classical instrumental colour", in MacDonald's description.[380] Their creative development was also facilitated by Martin's willingness to experiment in response to their suggestions, such as adding "something baroque" to a particular recording.[381] In addition to scoring orchestral arrangements for recordings, Martin often performed on them, playing instruments including piano, organ and brass.[382]

Collaborating with Lennon and McCartney required Martin to adapt to their different approaches to songwriting and recording. MacDonald comments, "while [he] worked more naturally with the conventionally articulate McCartney, the challenge of catering to Lennon's intuitive approach generally spurred him to his more original arrangements, of which 'Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite!' is an outstanding example."[383] Martin said of the two composers' distinct songwriting styles and his own stabilising influence:

Compared with Paul's songs, all of which seemed to keep in some sort of touch with reality, John's had a psychedelic, almost mystical quality ... John's imagery is one of the best things about his work – 'tangerine trees', 'marmalade skies', 'cellophane flowers' ... I always saw him as an aural Salvador Dalí, rather than some drug-ridden record artist. On the other hand, I would be stupid to pretend that drugs didn't figure quite heavily in the Beatles' lives at that time ... they knew that I, in my schoolmasterly role, didn't approve ... Not only was I not into it myself, I couldn't see the need for it; and there's no doubt that, if I too had been on dope, Pepper would never have been the album it was. Perhaps it was the combination of dope and no dope that worked, who knows?[384]

Harrison echoed Martin's description of his stabilising role: "I think we just grew through those years together, him as the straight man and us as the loonies; but he was always there for us to interpret our madness – we used to be slightly avant-garde on certain days of the week, and he would be there as the anchor person, to communicate that through the engineers and on to the tape."[385]

In the studio
See also: The Beatles' recording technology
Making innovative use of technology while expanding the possibilities of recorded music, the Beatles urged experimentation by Martin and his recording engineers. Seeking ways to put chance occurrences to creative use, accidental guitar feedback, a resonating glass bottle, a tape loaded the wrong way round so that it played backwards – any of these might be incorporated into their music.[386] Their desire to create new sounds on every new recording, combined with Martin's arranging abilities and the studio expertise of EMI staff engineers Norman Smith, Ken Townsend and Geoff Emerick, all contributed significantly to their records from Rubber Soul and, especially, Revolver onwards.[386]

Along with innovative studio techniques such as sound effects, unconventional microphone placements, tape loops, double tracking and vari-speed recording, the Beatles augmented their songs with instruments that were unconventional in rock music at the time. These included string and brass ensembles as well as Indian instruments such as the sitar in "Norwegian Wood" and the swarmandal in "Strawberry Fields Forever".[387] They also used novel electronic instruments such as the Mellotron, with which McCartney supplied the flute voices on the "Strawberry Fields Forever" intro,[388] and the clavioline, an electronic keyboard that created the unusual oboe-like sound on "Baby, You're a Rich Man".[389]

Legacy
Main article: Cultural impact of the Beatles

The Beatles Monument in Almaty, Kazakhstan
Former Rolling Stone associate editor Robert Greenfield compared the Beatles to Picasso, as "artists who broke through the constraints of their time period to come up with something that was unique and original ... [I]n the form of popular music, no one will ever be more revolutionary, more creative and more distinctive ..."[336] The British poet Philip Larkin described their work as "an enchanting and intoxicating hybrid of Negro rock-and-roll with their own adolescent romanticism", and "the first advance in popular music since the War".[390]

They not only sparked the British Invasion of the United States,[391] they became a globally influential phenomenon as well.[392] From the 1920s, the United States had dominated popular entertainment culture throughout much of the world, via Hollywood movies, jazz, the music of Broadway and Tin Pan Alley and, later, the rock and roll that first emerged in Memphis, Tennessee.[321] The Beatles are regarded as British cultural icons, with young adults from abroad naming the band among a group of people that they most associated with UK culture.[393][394]

Their musical innovations and commercial success inspired musicians worldwide.[392] Many artists have acknowledged the Beatles' influence and enjoyed chart success with covers of their songs.[395] On radio, their arrival marked the beginning of a new era; in 1968 the programme director of New York's WABC radio station forbade his DJs from playing any "pre-Beatles" music, marking the defining line of what would be considered oldies on American radio.[396] They helped to redefine the album as something more than just a few hits padded out with "filler",[397] and they were primary innovators of the modern music video.[398] The Shea Stadium show with which they opened their 1965 North American tour attracted an estimated 55,600 people,[140] then the largest audience in concert history; Spitz describes the event as a "major breakthrough ... a giant step toward reshaping the concert business".[399] Emulation of their clothing and especially their hairstyles, which became a mark of rebellion, had a global impact on fashion.[98]

According to Gould, the Beatles changed the way people listened to popular music and experienced its role in their lives. From what began as the Beatlemania fad, the group's popularity grew into what was seen as an embodiment of sociocultural movements of the decade. As icons of the 1960s counterculture, Gould continues, they became a catalyst for bohemianism and activism in various social and political arenas, fuelling movements such as women's liberation, gay liberation and environmentalism.[400] According to Peter Lavezzoli, after the "more popular than Jesus" controversy in 1966, the Beatles felt considerable pressure to say the right things and "began a concerted effort to spread a message of wisdom and higher consciousness".[165]

Other commentators such as Mikal Gilmore and Todd Leopold have traced the inception of their socio-cultural impact earlier, interpreting even the Beatlemania period, particularly on their first visit to the United States, as a key moment in the development of generational awareness.[96][401] Referring to their appearance on the Ed Sullivan Show Leopold states: "In many ways, the Sullivan appearance marked the beginning of a cultural revolution ... The Beatles were like aliens dropped into the United States of 1964."[401] According to Gilmore:

Elvis Presley had shown us how rebellion could be fashioned into eye-opening style; the Beatles were showing us how style could have the impact of cultural revelation – or at least how a pop vision might be forged into an unimpeachable consensus.[96]

Awards and achievements
See also: List of awards and nominations received by the Beatles
In 1965, Queen Elizabeth II appointed Lennon, McCartney, Harrison and Starr Members of the Order of the British Empire (MBE).[130] The film Let It Be (1970) won the 1971 Academy Award for Best Original Song Score.[271] The recipients of seven Grammy Awards[402] and fifteen Ivor Novello Awards,[403] the Beatles have 6 Diamond albums, as well as 20 Multi-Platinum albums, 16 Platinum albums and 6 Gold albums in the United States.[282] In the UK, the Beatles have four Multi-Platinum albums, four Platinum albums, eight Gold albums and one Silver album.[283] They were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1988.

The best-selling band in history, the Beatles have sold more than 800 million physical and digital albums as of 2013.[404] They have had more number-one albums on the UK charts, fifteen,[405] and sold more singles in the UK, 21.9 million, than any other act.[406] In 2004, Rolling Stone ranked the Beatles as the best artist of all time.[407] They ranked number one on Billboard magazine's list of the all-time most successful Hot 100 artists, released in 2008 to celebrate the US singles chart's 50th anniversary.[408] As of 2017, they hold the record for most number-one hits on the Billboard Hot 100, with twenty.[409] The Recording Industry Association of America certifies that the Beatles have sold 178 million units in the US, more than any other artist.[410] They were collectively included in Time magazine's compilation of the twentieth century's 100 most influential people.[411] In 2014, they received the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award.[412]

On 16 January, beginning from 2001, people celebrate the World Beatles Day under UNESCO. This date has direct relation to the opening of The Cavern Club in 1957.[413][414]

Personnel
Further information: List of members of bands featuring members of the Beatles
Principal members

John Lennon – vocals, rhythm and lead guitar, keyboards, harmonica, bass guitar (1960–1969)
Paul McCartney – vocals, bass guitar, rhythm and lead guitar, keyboards, drums (1960–1970)
George Harrison – lead and rhythm guitar, vocals, sitar, keyboards, bass guitar (1960–1970)
Ringo Starr – drums, percussion, vocals (1962–1970)
Early members

Pete Best – drums, vocals (1960–1962)
Stuart Sutcliffe – bass guitar, vocals (1960–1961)
Chas Newby – bass guitar (1960–1961)
Norman Chapman – drums (1960)
Tommy Moore – drums (1960)
Touring musician

Jimmie Nicol – drums (1964)
Discography
Main article: The Beatles discography
See also: List of songs recorded by the Beatles
Further information: The Beatles' recording sessions and The Beatles bootleg recordings
Please Please Me (1963)
With the Beatles (1963)
A Hard Day's Night (1964)
Beatles for Sale (1964)
Help! (1965)
Rubber Soul (1965)
Revolver (1966)
Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band (1967)
Magical Mystery Tour (1967)
The Beatles ("The White Album", 1968)
Yellow Submarine (1969)
Abbey Road (1969)
Let It Be (1970)
The above albums were reissued on CD in 1987, followed by the 1988 compilations Past Masters – Volume One and Past Masters – Volume Two, which collected all of the Beatles' non-album singles plus the 1964 EP Long Tall Sally and a few other rarities that were commercially available in the 1960s.

See also

Anthology 1 (1995), Anthology 2 (1996) and Anthology 3 (1996)
Discographies of John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr
Lennon and McCartney's non-Beatles songs
Collaborations between ex-Beatles
Song catalogue
Through 1969, the Beatles' catalogue was published almost exclusively by Northern Songs Ltd, a company formed in February 1963 by music publisher Dick James specifically for Lennon and McCartney, though it later acquired songs by other artists. The company was organised with James and his partner, Emmanuel Silver, owning a controlling interest, variously described as 51% or 50% plus one share. McCartney had 20%. Reports again vary concerning Lennon's portion – 19 or 20% – and Brian Epstein's – 9 or 10% – which he received in lieu of a 25% band management fee.[415][416][417] In 1965, the company went public. Five million shares were created, of which the original principals retained 3.75 million. James and Silver each received 937,500 shares (18.75% of 5 million); Lennon and McCartney each received 750,000 shares (15%); and Epstein's management company, NEMS Enterprises, received 375,000 shares (7.5%). Of the 1.25 million shares put up for sale, Harrison and Starr each acquired 40,000.[418] At the time of the stock offering, Lennon and McCartney renewed their three-year publishing contracts, binding them to Northern Songs until 1973.[419]

Harrison created Harrisongs to represent his Beatles compositions, but signed a three-year contract with Northern Songs that gave it the copyright to his work through March 1968, which included "Taxman" and "Within You Without You".[420] The songs on which Starr received co-writing credit before 1968, such as "What Goes On" and "Flying", were also Northern Songs copyrights.[421] Harrison did not renew his contract with Northern Songs when it ended, signing instead with Apple Publishing while retaining the copyright to his work from that point on. Harrisongs thus owns the rights to his later Beatles songs such as "While My Guitar Gently Weeps" and "Something". That year, as well, Starr created Startling Music, which holds the rights to his Beatles compositions, "Don't Pass Me By" and "Octopus's Garden".[422][423]

In March 1969, James arranged to sell his and his partner's shares of Northern Songs to the British broadcasting company Associated Television (ATV), founded by impresario Lew Grade, without first informing the Beatles. The band then made a bid to gain controlling interest by attempting to work out a deal with a consortium of London brokerage firms that had accumulated a 14% holding.[424] The deal collapsed over the objections of Lennon, who declared, "I'm sick of being fucked about by men in suits sitting on their fat arses in the City."[425] By the end of May, ATV had acquired a majority stake in Northern Songs, controlling nearly the entire Lennon–McCartney catalogue, as well as any future material until 1973.[426] In frustration, Lennon and McCartney sold their shares to ATV in late October 1969.[427]

In 1981, financial losses by ATV's parent company, Associated Communications Corporation (ACC), led it to attempt to sell its music division. According to authors Brian Southall and Rupert Perry, Grade contacted McCartney, offering ATV Music and Northern Songs for $30 million.[428] According to an account McCartney gave in 1995, he met with Grade and explained he was interested solely in the Northern Songs catalogue, if Grade were ever willing to "separate off" that portion of ATV Music. Soon afterwards, Grade offered to sell him Northern Songs for £20 million, giving the ex-Beatle "a week or so" to decide. By McCartney's account, he and Ono countered with a £5 million bid that was rejected.[429] According to reports at the time, Grade refused to separate Northern Songs, and turned down an offer of £21–25 million from McCartney and Ono for Northern Songs. In 1982, ACC was acquired in a takeover by Australian business magnate Robert Holmes à Court for £60 million.[430]

In 1985, Michael Jackson purchased ATV for a reported $47.5 million. The acquisition gave him control over the publishing rights to more than 200 Beatles songs, as well as 40,000 other copyrights.[431] In 1995, in a deal that earned him a reported $110 million, Jackson merged his music publishing business with Sony, creating a new company, Sony/ATV Music Publishing, in which he held a 50% stake. The merger made the new company, then valued at over half a billion dollars, the third largest music publisher in the world.[432] In 2016, Sony acquired Jackson's share of Sony/ATV from the Jackson estate for $750 million.[433]

Despite the lack of publishing rights to most of their songs, Lennon's estate and McCartney continue to receive their respective shares of the writers' royalties, which together are 33​1⁄3% of total commercial proceeds in the US and which vary elsewhere around the world between 50 and 55%.[434] Two of Lennon and McCartney's earliest songs – "Love Me Do" and "P.S. I Love You" – were published by an EMI subsidiary, Ardmore & Beechwood, before they signed with James. McCartney acquired their publishing rights from Ardmore[435] in 1978,[436] and they are the only two Beatles songs owned by McCartney's company MPL Communications.[437] On 18 January 2017, McCartney filed a suit in the United States district court against Sony/ATV Music Publishing seeking to reclaim ownership of his share of the Lennon–McCartney song catalogue beginning in 2018. Under US copyright law, for works published before 1978 the author can reclaim copyrights assigned to a publisher after 56 years.[438][439] McCartney and Sony agreed to a confidential settlement in June 2017.[440][441]

Selected filmography
Main article: The Beatles in film
Fictionalised

A Hard Day's Night (1964)
Help! (1965)
Magical Mystery Tour (1967)
Yellow Submarine (1968) (brief cameo)
Documentaries and filmed performances

The Beatles at Shea Stadium (1966)
Let It Be (1970)
The Compleat Beatles (1982)
It Was Twenty Years Ago Today (1987) (about Sgt. Pepper)
The Beatles Anthology (1995)
The Beatles: 1+ (2015) (collection of digitally restored music videos)
The Beatles: Eight Days a Week (2016) (about Beatlemania and touring years)
Concert tours
Main article: List of the Beatles' live performances
1963

1963 UK tours (winter–autumn)
The Beatles Winter 1963 Helen Shapiro Tour
Spring 1963 Tommy Roe/Chris Montez UK tour
Roy Orbison/The Beatles Tour
Autumn 1963 Sweden tour
1964

Winter 1964 North American tour
Spring 1964 UK tour
The Beatles' 1964 world tour
1965

The Beatles' 1965 European tour
The Beatles' 1965 US tour
The Beatles' 1965 UK tour
1966

The Beatles' 1966 tour of Germany, Japan and the Philippines
The Beatles' 1966 US tour
Notes
 It was "Mull of Kintyre", by McCartney's post-Beatles band Wings, that surpassed it in sales.[60]
 Vee-Jay company president Ewart Abner resigned after it was disclosed he used company funds to cover gambling debts.[81]
 During the same week in April 1964, a third American Beatles LP joined the two already in circulation; two of the three reached the first spot on the Billboard albums chart, the third peaked at number two.[102]
 Harrison's ringing 12-string inspired Roger McGuinn, who obtained his own Rickenbacker and used it to craft the trademark sound of the Byrds.[108]
 Starr was briefly hospitalised after a tonsillectomy, and Jimmie Nicol sat in on drums for the first five dates.[110]
 It was not until Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band in 1967 that a Beatles album was released with identical track listings in both the UK and the US.[162]
 It was speculated that he was concerned that the band might not renew his management contract, due to expire in October, over discontent with his supervision of business matters, particularly regarding Seltaeb, the company that handled their US merchandising rights.[210]
 The band unsuccessfully attempted to block the 1977 release of Live! at the Star-Club in Hamburg, Germany; 1962. The independently issued album compiled recordings made during the group's Hamburg residency, taped on a basic recording machine using only one microphone.[286]
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Further reading
Astley, John (2006). Why Don't We Do It In The Road? The Beatles Phenomenon. The Company of Writers. ISBN 978-0-9551834-7-8.
Barrow, Tony (2005). John, Paul, George, Ringo & Me: The Real Beatles Story. New York: Thunder's Mouth. ISBN 978-1-56025-882-7.
Bramwell, Tony; Kingsland, Rosemary (2006). Magical Mystery Tours: My Life with the Beatles. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-33044-6.
Braun, Michael (1964). Love Me Do: The Beatles' Progress (1995 reprint ed.). London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-002278-0.
Carr, Roy; Tyler, Tony (1975). The Beatles: An Illustrated Record. New York: Harmony Books. ISBN 978-0-517-52045-1.
Epstein, Brian (1964). A Cellarful of Noise. Byron Preiss. ISBN 978-0-671-01196-3. OCLC 39211052.
The Beatles: The FBI Files. Federal Bureau of Investigation. Filibust. 2007. ISBN 978-1-59986-256-9. Retrieved 31 March 2014.
Harry, Bill (1985). The Book Of Beatle Lists. Poole, Dorset: Javelin. ISBN 978-0-7137-1521-7.
Kirchherr, Astrid; Voormann, Klaus (1999). Hamburg Days. Guildford, Surrey: Genesis Publications. ISBN 978-0-904351-73-6.
Lennon, Cynthia (2005). John. New York: Crown Publishers. ISBN 978-0-307-33855-6.
Lewisohn, Mark (2013). The Beatles – All These Years: Volume One: Tune In. Little, Brown Book Group. ISBN 978-0-316-72960-4.
Mansfield, Ken (2007). The White Book. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson. ISBN 978-1-59555-101-6. Retrieved 31 March 2014.
Martin, George; Pearson, William (1994). Summer of Love: The Making of Sgt. Pepper. London: Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-60398-7.
Riley, Tim (2011). Lennon: The Man, the Myth, the Music – The Definitive Life. New York: Hyperion/HarperCollins. ISBN 978-1-4013-2452-0.
Schaffner, Nicholas (1977). The Beatles Forever. Harrisburg, PA: Cameron House. ISBN 978-0-8117-0225-6.
Sheffield, Rob (2017). Dreaming the Beatles. New York: Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-06-220765-4.
Turner, Steve (2005). A Hard Day's Write: The Stories Behind Every Beatles Song (3rd ed.). New York: Harper Paperbacks. ISBN 978-0-06-084409-7.
External links
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Fender Musical Instruments Corporation
Fender guitars logo.svg
Formerly
Fender Electric Instrument Manufacturing Company
Type
Private
Industry	Musical instruments
Genre	Music
Founded	Fullerton, California, U.S. (1946; 73 years ago)
Founder	Clarence Leonidas Fender
Headquarters	Scottsdale, Arizona, United States
Area served
Worldwide
Key people
Andy Mooney (CEO)[1]
James S. Broenen (CFO)
Evan Jones (CMO)[2]
Products	Electric, acoustic, resonator & classical guitars
Acoustic & electric bass guitars
Banjos
Mandolins
Ukuleles
Harmonicas
Amplifiers
Effects units
Audio equipment
Brands	Fender Custom Shop
Fender Japan
Squier
Gretsch
Jackson
Charvel
EVH
Bigsby [3]
Divisions	Corona, California (USA) Ensenada, Baja California (Mexico)
Website	www.fender.com
Fender Musical Instruments Corporation (FMIC, or simply Fender) is an American manufacturer of stringed instruments and amplifiers. Fender produces acoustic guitars, bass amplifiers and public address equipment, but is best known for its solid-body electric guitars and bass guitars, particularly the Stratocaster, Telecaster, Precision Bass, and the Jazz Bass. The company was founded in Fullerton, California, by Clarence Leonidas "Leo" Fender in 1946. Its headquarters are in Scottsdale, Arizona.

FMIC is a privately held corporation, with Andy Mooney serving as the Chief Executive Officer (CEO). The company filed for an initial public offering in March 2012,[4] but this was withdrawn[5][6] five months later. In addition to its Scottsdale headquarters, Fender has manufacturing facilities in Corona, California (US) and Ensenada, Baja California (Mexico).[7]

As of July 10, 2012, the majority shareholders of Fender were the private equity firm of Weston Presidio (43%), Japanese music distributors Yamano Music (14%) and Kanda Shokai (13%), and Servco Pacific (5%).[8][9] In December 2012, TPG Growth (the middle market and growth equity investment platform of TPG Capital) and Servco Pacific took control of the company after acquiring the shares held by Weston Presidio.[10]


Contents
1	History
1.1	Origins
1.2	Sale to CBS
1.3	After CBS
2	Fender Logos
3	Acquisitions and partnerships
4	Publications
4.1	Fender Frontline
4.2	Product guide
5	Products
6	Squier
7	See also
8	References
9	External links
History
In 1950, Fender introduced the first mass-produced solid-body Spanish-style electric guitar, the Telecaster (originally named the Broadcaster for two-pickup models and Esquire for single-pickup).[11] Following its success, Fender created the first mass-produced electric bass, the Precision Bass (P-Bass). In 1954, Fender unveiled the Stratocaster ("Strat") guitar. With the Telecaster and Precision Bass having been on the market for some time, Leo Fender was able to incorporate input from working musicians into the Stratocaster's design.

Origins

Diagram of Leo Fender's lap steel guitar from 1944 patent application.
The company began as Fender's Radio Service in late 1938 in Fullerton, California. As a qualified electronics technician, Fender had repaired radios, phonographs, home audio amplifiers, public address systems and musical instrument amplifiers, all designs based on research developed and released to the public domain by Western Electric in the 1930s using vacuum tubes for amplification. The business also sidelined in carrying records for sale and the in rental of company-designed PA systems. Leo became intrigued by design flaws in contemporary musical instrument amplifiers and began building amplifiers based on his own designs or modifications to designs.

By the early 1940s, Leo Fender had entered into a partnership with Clayton Orr "Doc" Kauffman, and they formed the K & F Manufacturing Corp to design, manufacture, and market electric instruments and amplifiers. Production began in 1945 with Hawaiian lap steel guitars (incorporating a patented pickup) and amplifiers, sold as sets. By the end of the year, Fender became convinced that manufacturing was more profitable than repair, and decided to concentrate on that business instead. Kauffman remained unconvinced, and he and Fender amicably parted ways by early 1946. At that point, Fender renamed the company the Fender Electric Instrument Company. The service shop remained open until 1951, although Leo Fender did not personally supervise it after 1947.

Leo Fender's lap steel guitar made in 1946 for Noel Boggs was probably the very first product of the new company, bearing an early presentation of the cursive "big F" Fender logo.[12]

In the late 1940s, Fender began to experiment with more conventional guitar designs. Early Broadcasters were plagued with issues; while Fender boasted the strength of the instrument's one-piece maple neck, early adopters lamented its tendency to bow in humid weather. Fender's reluctant addition of a metal truss rod into the necks of his guitars allowed for the much needed ability to fine-tune the instrument to the musician's specific needs. With the design of the Telecaster finalized, mass production began in 1950. The Telecaster's bolted-on neck allowed for the instrument's body and neck to be milled and finished separately, and for the final assembling to be done quickly and cheaply by unskilled workers.


The Stratocaster was released in 1954.
In 1959, Fender released the Jazzmaster guitar. Like the Stratocaster before it, the Jazzmaster was a radical departure from previous guitar designs. The offset body, vibrato system and innovative electronics were designed to capture the Jazz guitar market which until then was dominated by acoustic guitars. Fender even promoted the Jazzmaster as a premium successor to the Stratocaster, an accolade it never fully achieved. Despite being shunned by the Jazz community, the guitar found a home in the growing surf rock music scene, one that would go into influence the Jazzmaster's successor, the Jaguar in 1962.

Sale to CBS
In early 1965, Leo Fender sold his companies to the Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS) for $13 million.[13][14] This was almost two million more than they had paid for The New York Yankees a year before. CBS entered the musical instruments field by acquiring the Fender companies (Fender Sales, Inc., Fender Electric Instrument Company, Inc., Fender Acoustic Instrument Company, Inc., Fender-Rhodes, Inc., Terrafen, Inc., Clef-Tronix, Inc., Randall Publishing Co., Inc., and V.C. Squier Company), as well as Electro-Music Inc. (Leslie speakers), Rogers drums, Steinway pianos, Gemeinhardt flutes, Lyon & Healy harps, Rodgers (institutional) organs, and Gulbransen home organs.

The sale was taken as a positive development, considering CBS's ability to bring in money and personnel who acquired a large inventory of Fender parts and unassembled guitars that were assembled and put to market. However, the sale also led to a reduction of the quality of Fender's guitars while under the management of "cost-cutting" CBS. Several cosmetic changes occurred after 1965/1966, such as a larger headstock shape on certain guitars. Bound necks with block shaped position markers were introduced in 1966. A bolder black headstock logo, as well as a brushed aluminum face plate with blue or red labels (depending the model) for the guitar and bass amplifiers became standard features, starting in late 1968. These first "silverface" amps added an aluminium trim detail around the speaker baffle until 1970.

Other cosmetic changes included a new "tailless" Fender amp decal and a sparkling orange grillcloth on certain amplifiers in the mid-1970s. Regarding guitars, in mid-1971 the usual four-bolt neck joint was changed to one using only three bolts, and a second string tree for the two middle (G and D) strings was added in late 1972. These changes were said to have been made to save money: while it suited the new 'improved' micro-tilt adjustment of the neck (previously requiring neck removal and shimming), the "Bullet" truss rod system, and a 5-way pickup selector on most models, it also resulted in a greater propensity toward mechanical failure of the guitars.

During the CBS era, the company did introduce some new instrument and amplifier designs. The Fender Starcaster was particularly unusual because of its shallow, yet completely hollow body design that still retained the traditional Fender bolt-on neck, albeit with a completely different headstock. The Starcaster also incorporated a new Humbucking pickup designed by Seth Lover, which became known as the Wide Range pickup. This pickup also gave rise to 3 new incarnations of the classic Telecaster: the Telecaster Custom, the Telecaster Deluxe and the Telecaster Thinline. Though more recent use by Jonny Greenwood of Radiohead has raised the Starcaster's profile, CBS-era instruments are generally much less coveted or collectable than the "pre-CBS" models created by Leo Fender prior to selling the Fender companies to CBS in 1965.

In 1983 the Fender Stratocaster received a short-lived redesign including a single ("master") tone control, a bare-bones pickguard-mounted output jack, redesigned single-coil pickups, active electronics, and three push buttons for pickup selection (on the Elite Series). Additionally, previous models such as the Swinger (also known as Musiclander) and Custom (also known as Maverick) were perceived by some musicians as little more than attempts to squeeze profits out of factory stock. The so-called "pre-CBS cult" refers to the popularity of Fenders made before the sale.

After selling the Fender company, Leo Fender founded Music Man in 1975, and G&L Musical Instruments in 1979, both of which manufacture electric guitars and basses based on his later designs.

After CBS

Leo Fender and early guitar models at the Fender Guitar Factory Museum.
In 1985, in a campaign initiated by then CBS Musical Instruments division president William Schultz (1926–2006), the Fender Electric Instrument Manufacturing Company employees purchased the company from CBS and renamed it Fender Musical Instruments Corporation (FMIC). The sale did not include the old Fullerton factory; FMIC had to build a new facility in nearby Corona.

In 1991, FMIC moved its corporate headquarters from its Corona location to Scottsdale, Arizona, where "administration, marketing, advertising, sales and export operations" take place, not only for the United States operations, but many other countries also.[15] Fender guitars built in Ensenada, Mexico, now fulfill the primary export role formerly held by Japanese-made Fenders. The Japanese Fenders are now manufactured specifically for the Japanese market, with only a small number marked for export.

On February 11, 1994, the Ensenada plant burned down, and main production was temporarily moved to Corona.

Fender Logos

Fender Telecaster with a “spaghetti logo” from the pre-CBS era
The Fender “spaghetti logo” was used by Fender from 1950 to the mid 1960s. By 1965 Fender used a transition logo which was a thicker gold-and-black logo (this logo is associated with CBS).[16]

Acquisitions and partnerships
FMIC has purchased a number of instrument brands and firms, including the Guild Guitar Company, the Sunn Amplifier Company, and SWR Sound Corporation. In early 2003, FMIC reached an agreement with the Gretsch family and began manufacturing and distributing new Gretsch guitars. Fender also owns Jackson, Olympia, Orpheum, Tacoma Guitars, Squier, and Brand X amps.

On October 28, 2007, Fender acquired Kaman Music Corporation, which owned the Ovation Guitar Company, Latin Percussion and Toca hand percussion products, Gibraltar Hardware, Genz Benz Amplification, Charvel, Hamer Guitars, and is the exclusive U.S. sales representative for Sabian Cymbals and exclusive worldwide distributor of Takamine Guitars and Gretsch Drums.

In 2011, Volkswagen partnered with Fender to manufacture premium sound systems for its vehicles in North America.[17] Volkswagen vehicles in North America that offer optional Fender Premium Sound are the Volkswagen Golf, Volkswagen Beetle, Volkswagen Jetta Sedan, Volkswagen Passat, and Volkswagen Tiguan.

In February 2015, KMC was sold to Jam Industries[18] by FMIC.[19] In January, 2019 Fender purchased the Bigsby Electric Guitar Company from its partner Gretsch. The subsidiary operates independently, and produces the popular Bigsby vibrato tailpiece as well as several Paul Bigsby-designed electric guitars.[20]

Publications
Fender Frontline
Fender published the Fender Frontline magazine as a source of product, artist and technical data for the company's customers.[21] The first half featured interviews and articles about the guitars and the stars who played them, and the second half was a catalog section.[22]

Fender published 27 issues of the magazine from 1990 through 2000.[22] Notable interviewees included Kurt Cobain in Fall 1994, in what was his last interview.[23] Fender had designed a hybrid guitar for Cobain, known as a Jag Stang.[24][23] Other notable interviews featured Pink Floyd guitarist David Gilmour,[25] Glenn Hughes from Deep Purple,[26] and King Crimson's Adrian Belew.[27]

In 2001, Fender eliminated the interviews and features section, and Frontline became an annual illustrated price list until 2006, when it was replaced with a product guide.[22]

Product guide
Since February 2007, Fender produces an annual illustrated product guide in place of its traditional annual Frontline magazine. This change was made in large part due to costs associated with paying royalties for both print and the Internet. With the new illustrated product guide, this removed print issues. The new guide contains the entire range of instruments and amplifiers, with color pictures and basic specifications. These are available through guitar publications and are directly mailed to customers who sign up on the Fender website. As well as these printed formats, Fender Frontline Live launched at the winter NAMM show in January 2007 as a new online reference point, containing information on new products and live footage from the show.

Products
Main article: List of products manufactured by Fender Musical Instruments Corporation
Fender's core product are electric guitars in Duo-Sonic, Jaguar, Jazzmaster, Mustang, Telecaster and Stratocaster models. This is alongside bass guitars in Mustang, Jaguar, Jazz and Precision models. Fender also manufactures acoustic guitars, lap steels guitars, electric violins guitar/ bass amplifiers and the Fender Rhodes electric piano.

Squier
Main article: Squier
Squier was a string manufacturer that Fender acquired. Fender has used the Squier brand since 1982 to market inexpensive variants of Fender guitars to compete with Stratocaster copies, as the Stratocaster became more popular. Squier guitars have been manufactured in Japan, Korea, Mexico, India, Indonesia, China and the United States of America.

See also
Music Man
G&L Musical Instruments
References
 "Fender Musical Instruments Corporation Appoints Andy Mooney to CEO". 2 June 2015. Archived from the original on 13 June 2015. Retrieved 3 June 2015.
 Instruments, Fender® Musical. "Fender News & Tech Talk - Fender". spotlight.fender.com. Archived from the original on 12 September 2017. Retrieved 2 May 2018.
 About Fender - Official Fender Website Archived 2015-05-06 at the Wayback Machine, 5 May 2015
 O'Toole, James (2012-03-08). "Guitar-maker Fender files for IPO - Mar. 8, 2012". Money.cnn.com. Archived from the original on 2014-03-16. Retrieved 2014-03-15.
 Editorial, Benzinga. "Fender Withdraws IPO". forbes.com. Archived from the original on 29 October 2017. Retrieved 2 May 2018.
 "Why Fender pulled its IPO". Fortune. Archived from the original on 13 February 2018. Retrieved 2 May 2018.
 Hennigan, W.J. (March 8, 2012). "Guitar maker Fender files for initial public offering". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on March 9, 2012. Retrieved 2012-03-08.
 "Amendment No. 6 to FORM S-1 Registration Statement - Fender Musical Instruments Corporation". Washington, D.C.: United States Securities and Exchange Commission. July 10, 2012. p. 146. Registration No. 333-179978. Archived from the original on March 6, 2016.
 "Fender changes tune on IPO". The Orange County Register. Associated Press. July 21, 2012. p. Business 3.
 "With control, TPG Growth and Servco make Fender more consumer friendly" (Press release). PE Hub. 30 September 2013. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 2 May 2018.
 "Broadcaster Guitar Development". Britannica. 2008. Retrieved 2008-08-31.
 "Brad's Page of Steel". www.well.com. Archived from the original on 5 November 2016. Retrieved 2 May 2018.
 "CBS Acquires Guitar Concern. Purchases Fender Co. for $13 Million in Cash Deal". The New York Times. January 5, 1965. Archived from the original on May 24, 2013. Retrieved 2012-08-23. The Columbia Broadcasting System, Inc., which entered the sports field by acquiring the New York Yankees, is further diversifying into the guitar and amplifier manufacturing business.
 Day, Paul (1979). The Burns Book. pp Publishing. p. 36.
 "About Fender Musical Instruments Corporation". 2014. Archived from the original on 2014-09-20. Retrieved 2014-09-22.
 Owens, Jeff. "What Are Fender's 'Spaghetti' and 'Transition' Logos?". Fender. Fender Musical Instruments Corporation. Retrieved 8 August 2019.
 Raymundo, Oscar (2012-06-11). "Volkswagen Unveils Beetle Fender Edition". Rolling Stone. Retrieved 2018-10-11.
 "FMIC Sells KMC Music Wholesale Distribution Business to JAM Industries". Music Inc. Magazine. February 12, 2015. Archived from the original on March 14, 2015. Fender Musical Instruments Corporation (FMIC) announced on Feb. 10 that it has completed an asset sale of the KMC Music wholesale distribution business, including the trade name B & J Music, and certain proprietary brands, to JAM Industries, Ltd. JAM Industries is a global leader in the MI, pro-audio and consumer electronics wholesale distribution business.
 "Fender Musical Instruments Corp: General form for registration of securities under the Securities Act of 1933: List of Subsidiaries" (Type: EX-21.1; Act: 33). EDGAR. U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. 2012-03-08. Acc-no: 0001193125-12-101896 (33 Act), File No: 333-179978, CIK#: 0000767959. Archived from the original on 2015-09-24. KMC Music, Inc. dba KMC Musicorp., CT / •KMI Europe, Inc., DE / •B & J Music Ltd., Canada / •Takamine Gakki Co., Ltd. (12% KMC Music, Inc.), Japan
 "FENDER® MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS CORPORATION ANNOUNCES ACQUISITION OF BIGSBY®". Bigsby.com. Retrieved 6 August 2019.
 "The Fender Bass: An Illustrated History". books.google.com. Retrieved 2019-01-08.
 "Fender Frontline". 2tuguitars.com. Retrieved 2019-01-08.
 "Fender Frontline Fall 1994 Article". jag-stang.com. Retrieved 2019-01-07.
 "Nirvana: Super Fuzz Big Muff". guitarworld.com. 2008-02-21. Retrieved 2019-01-09.
 "Glenn Hughes from Fender Frontline". pink-floyd.org. Retrieved 2019-01-09.
 "Big Shots". thehighwaystar.com. Retrieved 2019-01-09.
 "Interview with Adrian Belew in Fender's Frontline". elephant-talk.com. Retrieved 2019-01-09.
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Les Paul
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This article is about the musician. For the guitar named after him, see Gibson Les Paul.
Les Paul
Les Paul live 3.jpg
Les Paul playing a Gibson Les Paul at the Iridium Jazz Club in New York City, 2008
Background information
Birth name	Lester William Polsfuss
Born	June 9, 1915
Waukesha, Wisconsin, U.S.
Died	August 12, 2009 (aged 94)
White Plains, New York, U.S.
Genres	
Jazzcountryblues
Occupation(s)	
Inventormusiciansongwriter
Instruments	Vocals, Guitar, Harmonica
Years active	1928–2009
Labels	RCA Records
Associated acts	Mary Ford
Website	www.lespaulfoundation.org
Lester William Polsfuss (June 9, 1915 – August 12, 2009), known as Les Paul, was an American jazz, country, and blues guitarist, songwriter, luthier, and inventor. He was one of the pioneers of the solid-body electric guitar, and his techniques served as inspiration for the Gibson Les Paul. Paul taught himself how to play guitar, and while he is mainly known for jazz and popular music, he had an early career in country music.[1] He is credited with many recording innovations. Although he was not the first to use the technique, his early experiments with overdubbing (also known as sound on sound),[2] delay effects such as tape delay, phasing effects and multitrack recording were among the first to attract widespread attention.[3]

His innovative talents extended into his playing style, including licks, trills, chording sequences, fretting techniques and timing, which set him apart from his contemporaries and inspired many guitarists of the present day.[4][5][6][7] He recorded with his wife, the singer and guitarist Mary Ford, in the 1950s, and they sold millions of records.

Among his many honors, Paul is one of a handful of artists with a permanent, stand-alone exhibit in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.[8] He is prominently named by the music museum on its website as an "architect" and a "key inductee" with Sam Phillips and Alan Freed.[9] Les Paul is the only person to be included in both the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and the National Inventors Hall of Fame.[10]


Contents
1	Early life
2	Career
2.1	Early career
2.2	Guitar builder
2.3	Multitrack recording
2.4	Les Paul and Mary Ford
2.5	Radio and television programs
2.6	Later career
3	Personal life
3.1	Death
4	Awards and honors
4.1	Concerts and exhibitions
5	Discography
5.1	Hit singles
5.2	Albums
5.3	Singles
6	Compositions
7	See also
8	References
9	Bibliography
10	External links
Early life
Paul was born Lester William Polsfuss[11] in Waukesha, Wisconsin, to George[10] and Evelyn (Stutz) Polsfuss. His family was of German ancestry.[12] Paul's mother was related to the founders of Milwaukee's Valentin Blatz Brewing Company and the makers of the Stutz automobile.[13] His parents divorced when he was a child.[14] His mother simplified their Prussian family name first to Polfuss, then to Polfus, although Les Paul never legally changed his name. Before taking the stage name Les Paul, he also performed as Red Hot Red[15] and Rhubarb Red.[16]

At the age of eight, Paul began playing the harmonica. After trying to learn the piano, he switched to the guitar. It was during this time that he invented a neck-worn harmonica holder, which allowed him to play both sides of the harmonica hands-free while accompanying himself on the guitar. It is still manufactured using his basic design.[17] By age thirteen, Paul was performing semi-professionally as a country-music singer, guitarist, and harmonica player. While playing at the Waukesha area drive-ins and roadhouses, Paul began his first experiment with sound. Wanting to make himself heard by more people at the local venues, he wired a phonograph needle to his guitar and connected it to a radio speaker, using that to amplify his acoustic guitar.[18] As a teen Paul experimented with sustain by using a 2-foot piece of rail from a nearby train line.[19] At age seventeen, Paul played with Rube Tronson's Texas Cowboys, and soon after he dropped out of high school to team up with Sunny Joe Wolverton's Radio Band in St. Louis, Missouri, on KMOX.

Career
Early career
Paul moved to Chicago in 1934, where he continued to perform on radio stations WBBM and WLS. He met pianist Art Tatum, whose playing influenced him to stick with the guitar rather than original plans of taking on the piano.[20] His first two records were released in 1936, credited to "Rhubarb Red", Paul's hillbilly alter ego. He also served as an accompanist for a few other bands signed to Decca. During this time he began adding different sounds and adopted his stage name of Les Paul.[21]

Paul's guitar style was strongly influenced by the music of Django Reinhardt, whom he greatly admired.[22] Following World War II, Paul sought out and made friends with Reinhardt. When Reinhardt died in 1953, Paul paid for part of the funeral's cost.[23] One of Paul's prized possessions was a Selmer Maccaferri acoustic guitar given to him by Reinhardt's widow.[15]

Paul formed a trio in 1937 with rhythm guitarist Jim Atkins[24] (older half-brother of guitarist Chet Atkins) and bassist/percussionist Ernie "Darius" Newton. They left Chicago for New York in 1938,[25] landing a featured spot with Fred Waring's radio show. Chet Atkins later wrote that his brother, home on a family visit, presented him with an expensive Gibson archtop guitar that Les Paul had given to Jim. Chet recalled that it was the first professional-quality instrument he ever owned.[26]

Paul was dissatisfied with acoustic-electric guitars and began experimenting at his apartment in Queens, New York with a few designs of his own. Famously, he created several versions of "The Log", which was a length of common 4x4 lumber with a bridge, neck, strings, and pickup attached. For the sake of appearance, he attached the body of an Epiphone hollow-body guitar sawn lengthwise with The Log in the middle. This solved his two main problems: feedback, as the acoustic body no longer resonated with the amplified sound, and sustain, as the energy of the strings was not dissipated in generating sound through the guitar body. These instruments were constantly being improved and modified over the years, and Paul continued to use them in his recordings long after the development of his eponymous Gibson model.

In 1945, Richard D. Bourgerie made an electric guitar pickup and amplifier for professional guitar player George Barnes. Bourgerie worked through World War II at Howard Radio Company making electronic equipment for the American military. Barnes showed the result to Les Paul, who arranged for Bourgerie to have one made for him.

While experimenting in his apartment in 1941,[25] Paul nearly succumbed to electrocution. During two years of recuperation, he moved to Hollywood, supporting himself by producing radio music and forming a new trio. During this time, he was remembered by factory workers as a frequent visitor to the Electro String Instrument Corp. shop on Western Avenue in Los Angeles, where he observed production of Rickenbacker brand guitars and amplifiers.

He was drafted into the U.S. Army in 1943,[25] where he served in the Armed Forces Radio Network, backing such artists as Bing Crosby, the Andrews Sisters, and performing in his own right.[27]


Les Paul, c. January 1947 (Photograph by William P. Gottlieb)
As a last-minute replacement for Oscar Moore, Paul played with Nat King Cole and other artists in the inaugural Jazz at the Philharmonic concert in Los Angeles, California, on July 2, 1944. His solo on "Body and Soul" is a demonstration both of his admiration for and emulation of the playing of Django Reinhardt, as well as his development of original lines.

Also that year, Paul's trio appeared on Bing Crosby's radio show. Crosby sponsored Paul's recordings. They recorded together several times, including "It's Been a Long, Long Time", which was a No. 1 hit in 1945. Paul recorded a few albums for Decca Records in the 1940s. He was enamoured by the Andrews Sisters, who hired his trio to open for them during a tour in 1946. Their manager, Lou Levy, said watching Paul's fingers while he played guitar was like watching a train go by.[28] Their conductor, Vic Schoen, said his playing was always original.[28] Maxine Andrews said, "He'd tune into the passages we were singing and lightly play the melody, sometimes in harmony. We'd sing these fancy licks and he'd keep up with us note for note in exactly the same rhythm...almost contributing a fourth voice. But he never once took the attention away from what we were doing. He did everything he could to make us sound better."[28] In the 1950s, when he recorded Mary Paul's vocals on multiple tracks, he created music that sounded like the Andrews Sisters.[28]

In January 1948, Paul shattered his right arm and elbow in a near-fatal automobile accident on an icy Route 66 west of Davenport, Oklahoma. Mary Ford was driving the Buick convertible, which plunged off the side of a railroad overpass and dropped twenty feet into a ravine; they were returning from Wisconsin to Los Angeles after visiting family.[25] Doctors at Oklahoma City's Wesley Presbyterian Hospital told Paul that they could not rebuild his elbow. Their other option was amputation. Paul was flown to Los Angeles, where his arm was set at an angle—just under 90 degrees—that allowed him to cradle and pick the guitar. It took him nearly a year and a half to recover.[29]

Guitar builder

Gibson '58 Reissue Les Paul guitar (2005)
In 1940, Les Paul created a prototype instrument, a one-off solid-body electric guitar known as "The Log", which he fashioned from a four-foot wooden board. The Log was built after-hours by Paul at the Epiphone guitar factory, and is one of the first solid-body electric guitars.[30][31] Earlier solid-body electric guitars include Paul Tutmarc's Audiovox electric bass in 1936 and Rickenbacker's guitars of the 1930s. In 1948 Paul A. Bigsby built a custom solid-body electric guitar for Merle Travis, and c. 1949 he built one for Les Paul (though Les kept this a secret for many years)[32] In 1948 Leo Fender created his own Fender "Esquire".

Although Paul had approached the Gibson Guitar Corporation with his idea of a solid-body electric guitar in 1941,[25] it showed no interest until Fender began marketing its Esquire and Broadcaster guitars in 1950 (The Broadcaster was renamed the Telecaster in 1952).

Gibson's Ted McCarty was the chief designer of the guitar later dubbed the Gibson Les Paul, and entered into a promotional and financial arrangement with Les Paul, paying him a royalty on sales.[33] Paul made design suggestions such as a change to the tailpiece. The guitar went on sale in 1952.

Problems with the strength of the body and neck made Paul dissatisfied with the new Gibson guitar. This, and a pending divorce from Mary Ford, led to Paul ending his endorsement and use of his name on Gibson guitars until 1966, by which time his divorce was completed.[34]

A less-expensive version of the Les Paul guitar is manufactured for Gibson's Epiphone brand.[35]

Paul continued to seek technical improvements, although they were not always successful commercially. For example, in 1962, Paul was issued US Patent No. 3,018,680, for a pickup in which the coil was physically attached to the strings.[36] One of Paul's innovations became somewhat successful; unfortunately, it was not to his benefit. In the mid-1940s, he introduced an aluminum guitar with the tuning mechanisms below the bridge. As it had no headstock, only string attachments at the nut, it was the first "headless" guitar. Unfortunately, Paul's guitar was so sensitive to the heat from stage lights that it would not keep tune. This style was further developed by others, most successfully Ned Steinberger.[37]

Multitrack recording
In the 1940s, Paul was unhappy with the way his records sounded. He felt that his sound was not different from anyone else's. This thought struck him when his mother complimented him on a song she had heard on the radio, when in fact she had heard George Barnes, not Paul.[38] During the 1930s and 1940s, Paul experimented with techniques in private for many years before demonstrating them for others. He put his sound into a Bing Crosby song, "It's Been a Long, Long Time," which was a number-one single in 1945.[39]

After a recording session, Crosby suggested that Paul build a recording studio so he could produce the sound he wanted. Paul started his studio in the garage of his home on North Curson Street in Hollywood. The studio drew many vocalists and musicians who wanted the benefit of his expertise. His experiments included microphone placement, track speed, and recording overdubs. These methods resulted in a clarity previously unheard in this type of multitrack recording. People started to consider his recording techniques as instruments—as important to production as a guitar, bass, or drums.[40] (The house and studio still stand but were moved to Pasadena some time after Paul sold the house.)[41]

In 1949, Crosby gave him one of the first Ampex Model 200A reel to reel tape recorders.[25] Capitol Records released "Lover (When You're Near Me)", which had begun as an experiment in the garage with Paul playing eight different parts on electric guitar, some recorded at half-speed, hence "double-fast" when played back at normal speed for the master. This was the first time he used multitracking in a recording, though he had been shopping his multitracking technique unsuccessfully since the 1930s. His early multitrack recordings were made with acetate discs. He recorded a track onto a disk, then recorded himself playing another part with the first. He built the multitrack recording with overlaid tracks rather than parallel ones as he did later. By the time he had a result that satisfied him, he had discarded some five hundred recording disks.

He built a disc-cutter assembly based on automobile parts. He favored the flywheel from a Cadillac for its weight and flatness. He used the acetate disc setup to record parts at different speeds and with delay, resulting in his signature sound with echoes and birdsong-like guitar riffs. When he used magnetic tape, he could take his recording equipment on tour, making episodes for his fifteen-minute radio show in his hotel room. He worked with Ross Snyder on the design of the first eight-track recording deck built for him by Ampex for his home studio.[41][42]

Paul invented Sound on Sound recording using this machine by placing an additional playback head, located before the conventional erase/record/playback heads. This allowed Paul to play along with a previously recorded track, both of which were mixed together on to a new track. This was a mono tape recorder with just one track across the entire width of quarter-inch tape; thus, the recording was "destructive" in the sense that the original recording was permanently replaced with the new, mixed recording. He eventually enhanced this by using one tape machine to play back the original recording and a second to record the combined track. This preserved the original recording.[43]

In 1952, he invented the flange effect, where a sound phases in and out in harmonic tone. The first example of this can be heard on his song "Mammy's Boogie".[44][45]

Paul bought the first Ampex 8-track recorder in 1957.[43] Rein Narma built a custom 8-channel mixing console for him.[46] The mixing board included in-line equalization and vibrato effects. He named the recorder "The Octopus" and the mixing console "The Monster".[47] The name "octopus" was inspired by comedian W. C. Fields who was the first person Paul played his multi-tracked guitar experiments to. "He came to my garage to make a little record (in 1946)," Les recalled. "I played him the acetate of 'Lover' that I'd done. When he heard it, he said, 'My boy, you sound like an octopus.'"[48]

Les Paul and Mary Ford
Main article: Les Paul and Mary Ford

Les Paul and Mary Ford in 1954
In the summer of 1945, Paul met country-western singer Iris Colleen Summers. They began working together in 1948, when she adopted the stage name Mary Ford. They married in 1949.

Their hits included "How High the Moon", "Bye Bye Blues", "Song in Blue", "Don'cha Hear Them Bells", "The World Is Waiting for the Sunrise", and "Vaya con Dios". The songs were recorded with multiple tracks where Ford harmonized with herself and Paul played several guitars.

Like Crosby, they used the recording technique known as close miking[41] where the microphone is less than 6 inches (15 cm) from the singer's mouth. This produces a more intimate, less reverberant sound than when a singer is 1 foot (30 cm) or more from the microphone. When using a pressure-gradient (uni- or bi-directional) microphone, it emphasizes low-frequency sounds in the voice due to the microphone's proximity effect and gives a more relaxed feel because the performer is not working as hard. The result is a singing style which diverged from the unamplified theater style of the musical comedies of the 1930s and 1940s.

Radio and television programs
Paul had hosted a 15-minute radio program, The Les Paul Show, on NBC Radio in 1950, featuring his trio (himself, Ford and rhythm player Eddie Stapleton) and his electronics, recorded from their home and with gentle humor between Paul and Ford bridging musical selections, some of which had already been successful on records, some of which anticipated the couple's recordings, and many of which presented re-interpretations of such jazz and pop selections as "In the Mood", "Little Rock Getaway", "Brazil", and "Tiger Rag". Over ten of these shows survive among old-time radio collectors today.[49]

The show also appeared on television a few years later with the same format, but excluding the trio and retitled The Les Paul & Mary Ford Show (also known as Les Paul & Mary Ford at Home) with "Vaya Con Dios" as the theme song. Sponsored by Warner–Lambert's Listerine mouthwash, it was aired on NBC television during 1954–1955, and then syndicated until 1960. The show aired five times a day, five days a week for only five minutes (one or two songs) long, and therefore was used as a brief interlude or fill-in in programming schedules. Since Paul created the entire show himself, including audio and video, he maintained the original recordings and was in the process of restoring them to current quality standards until his death.[50]

During his radio shows, Paul introduced the fictional "Les Paulverizer" device, which multiplies anything fed into it, such as a guitar sound or a voice. It was Paul's way of explaining how his single guitar could be multiplied to become a group of guitars. The device even became the subject of comedy, with Ford multiplying herself and her vacuum cleaner with it so she could finish the housework faster. Later, Paul created a real Les Paulverizer that he attached to his guitar. The invention allowed Paul to access pre-recorded layers of songs during live performances so he could replicate his recorded sound on stage.[51]

Later career

Les Paul, May 2004
In 1965, Paul went into semi-retirement, although he did return to the studio occasionally. He and Ford had divorced at the end of 1964 after she got tired of touring.[52] Paul's most recognizable recordings from then through the mid-1970s were an album for London Records/Phase 4 Stereo, Les Paul Now (1968), on which he updated some of his earlier hits; and two albums comprising a meld of jazz and country improvisation with guitar virtuoso Chet Atkins, backed by some of Nashville's celebrated studio musicians, Chester and Lester (1976) and Guitar Monsters (1978), for RCA Victor.

He played at slower tempos with a large pick that was easier to hold. In 2006, at the age of 90, he won two Grammy Awards at the 48th Annual Grammy Awards for his album Les Paul & Friends: American Made World Played. He also performed every Monday night with guitarist Lou Pallo, bassist Paul Nowinski (and later, Nicki Parrott), and guitarist Frank Vignola and for a few years, pianist John Colaianni. Paul, Pallo, and Nowinski performed at Fat Tuesdays and at the Iridium Jazz Club on Broadway.[53][54][55] In 1997, Chuck Mangione did a session with Les Paul. Mangione is told of how he beat out Les for Album of the Year.[56]

Composer Richard Stein sued Paul for plagiarism, charging that Paul's "Johnny (is the Boy for Me)" was taken from Stein's 1937 song "Sanie cu zurgălăi" (Romanian for "Sleigh with Bells"). In 2000, a cover version of "Johnny" by Belgian musical group Vaya Con Dios that credited Paul prompted another action by the Romanian Musical Performing and Mechanical Rights Society.[57][58]

Personal life

Les Paul with pianist John Colianni
Les Paul married Virginia Webb in 1937.[59] They had two children, Russell (Rusty) (1941–2015), and Gene (Les Paul, Jr. born in 1944), who was named after actor-songwriter Gene Lockhart. After getting divorced in 1949, he married Mary Ford (born Iris Colleen Summers).[60] The best man and matron of honor were the parents of guitarist Steve Miller, whose family was from Milwaukee. Paul was Miller's godfather and his first guitar teacher.[61][62] Ford gave birth to their first child on November 30, 1954, but the girl was born prematurely and died when she was four days old.[60] They adopted a girl, Colleen, in 1958, and their son, Robert (Bobby), was born the following year. Paul and Ford divorced in December 1964.[52]

Paul and Ford maintained a house in Mahwah, New Jersey,[63] and after their divorce Paul lived there until his death. In 1995, Paul established the Les Paul Foundation, which was designed to remain dormant until his death. The mission of the Foundation is to honor and share the life, spirit and legacy of Les Paul by supporting music education, engineering, and innovation as well as medical research.

On June 25, 2019, The New York Times Magazine listed Les Paul among hundreds of artists whose material was reportedly destroyed in the 2008 Universal fire.[64]

Death
On August 12, 2009, Paul died of complications from pneumonia at White Plains Hospital in White Plains, New York.[65][66] After hearing about his death, many musicians commented on his importance. Slash called him "vibrant and full of positive energy", while Richie Sambora called him a "revolutionary in the music business". The Edge said, "His legacy as a musician and inventor will live on and his influence on rock and roll will never be forgotten."[67][68][69] On August 21, 2009, he was buried in Prairie Home Cemetery, Waukesha, Wisconsin.[70][71]

Awards and honors

Les Paul and audio engineer Roger Nichols, both winners of Technical Grammy Awards
In 2007, he was given the National Medal of Arts from U.S. President George W. Bush.[72]

He was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame (2005) for his development of the solid-body electric guitar.[73] He was also inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame (2005), the Big Band & Jazz Hall of Fame (1990), the New Jersey Inventors Hall of Fame (1996), and the New Jersey Hall of Fame (2010).[74] In 1988, he was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame by guitarist Jeff Beck, who said, "I've copied more licks from Les Paul than I'd like to admit."

Two of his songs were entered into the Grammy Hall of Fame: "How High the Moon" and "Vaya Con Dios".[75][76] In 1976, he and Chet Atkins received the Grammy Award for Best Country Instrumental.[77] In 2005, he won Best Pop Instrumental for "Caravan" and Best Rock Instrumental for "69 Freedom Special."

In 1983, he received a Grammy Trustees Award for lifetime achievement. In 2001, he was honored with the Special Merit/Technical Grammy Award, which recognizes "individuals or institutions that have set the highest standards of excellence in the creative application of audio technology," a select award given to masters of audio innovation including Thomas Alva Edison, Leo Fender, and Beatles recording engineer Geoff Emerick.[78] In 2004, he received an Emmy Lifetime Achievement Award in Engineering and a Lifetime Achievement in Music Education from the Wisconsin Foundation for School Music.[77]

In 1960, he and Mary Ford received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.[77]

In 2009, he was named one of the top ten electric guitarists of all time by Time magazine[79] and two years later the eighteenth greatest guitarist of all time by Rolling Stone magazine.[80] During the same year, his name was added to the Nashville Walk of Fame.[77]

Concerts and exhibitions
In July 2005, a 90th-birthday tribute concert was held at Carnegie Hall in New York City. After performances by Steve Miller, Peter Frampton, Jose Feliciano and a number of others, Paul was presented with a commemorative guitar from the Gibson Guitar Corporation.[81] Three years later, at a tribute concert at the State Theater in Cleveland, Ohio, he received the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's American Music Masters Award.[82] On June 9, 2015, a yearlong celebration of Paul's 100th birthday kicked off in Times Square with performances by musicians including Steve Miller, Jose Feliciano, and Neal Schon, a memorabilia exhibition, and a proclamation from the Les Paul Foundation declaring June 9 as Les Paul Day.[83]

In 2007, the biographical film Les Paul Chasing Sound was aired on the public television series American Masters. The film contained interviews with Les Paul, performances by his trio on his 90th birthday, and interview commentary and performances by other musicians.[84]

In June 2008, an exhibit showcasing his legacy and featuring items from his personal collection opened at Discovery World in Milwaukee.[85] The exhibit was facilitated by a group of local musicians under the name Partnership for the Arts and Creative Excellence (PACE).[86] Paul played a concert in Milwaukee to coincide with the opening of the exhibit.[87] Paul's hometown of Waukesha, Wisconsin, opened a permanent exhibit titled "The Les Paul Experience" at the Waukesha County Museum in June 2013. The exhibit features artifacts on loan from the Les Paul Foundation. A self-guided tour of Les Paul's Waukesha was created by the Les Paul Foundation.[88][89]

In 2009, the concert film Les Paul Live in New York was aired on public television showing Les Paul performing on his 90th birthday at the Iridium Jazz Club in New York and in archival clips.[90]

Discography
Hit singles
Year	Single	Chart positions
US	CB	US Country	UK[91]
1945	"It's Been a Long, Long Time" (with Bing Crosby)	1			
1946	"Rumors Are Flying" (with The Andrews Sisters)	4			
1948	"Lover"	21			
"Brazil"	22			
"What Is This Thing Called Love?"	11			
1950	"Nola"	9			
"Goofus"	21			
"Little Rock Getaway"	18			
"Tennessee Waltz"	6			
1951	"Jazz Me Blues"	23			
"Mockin' Bird Hill"(gold record)	2		7	
"How High the Moon"(gold record)A	1			
"Josephine"	12			
"I Wish I Had Never Seen Sunshine"	18			
"The World Is Waiting for the Sunrise"(gold record)	2			
"Whispering"	7			
"Just One More Chance"	5			
"Jingle Bells"	10			
1952	"Tiger Rag"	2			
"I'm Confessin'"	13			
"Carioca"	14			
"In the Good Old Summertime"	15			
"Smoke Rings"	14			
"Meet Mister Callaghan"	5	4		
"Take Me in Your Arms and Hold Me"	15	22		
"Lady of Spain"	8			
"My Baby's Comin' Home"	7	11		
1953	"Bye Bye Blues"	5	14		
"I'm Sittin' On Top of the World"	10	8		
"Sleep"	21	31		
"Vaya Con Dios"(gold record)	1	1		7
"Johnny"	15	25		
"The Kangaroo"	25	23		
"Don'cha Hear Them Bells"	13	28		
1954	"I Really Don't Want To Know"	11	33		
"South"		18		
"I'm a Fool To Care"	6	13		
"Auctioneer"		28		
"Whither Thou Goest"	10	12		
"Mandolino"	19	22		
1955	"Song in Blue"		17		
"Someday Sweetheart"		39		
"No Letter Today"		27		
"Hummingbird"	7	6		
"Amukiriki"	38	24		
"Magic Melody"	96	43		
1956	"Texas Lady"	91	47		
"Cimarron (Roll On)"		48		
"Moritat"	49			
"Nuevo Laredo"	91			
1957	"Cinco Robles"	35	24		
1958	"Put a Ring on My Finger"	32	43		
"Jealous Heart"		71		
1961	"Jura"	37	81		
"It's Been a Long Long Time"	105			
A peaked at #2 on Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs charts
Albums
Feedback (1944) – compilation
Les Paul Trio (1946) – compilation
Hawaiian Paradise (1949)
The New Sound (1950)
Les Paul's New Sound, Volume 2 (1951)
Bye Bye Blues! (1952)
Gallopin' Guitars (1952) – compilation
The Hit Makers! (1953)
Les and Mary (1955)
Time to Dream (1957)
Lover's Luau (1959)
The Hits of Les and Mary (1960) – compilation
Bouquet of Roses (1962)
Warm and Wonderful (1962)
Swingin' South (1963)
Fabulous Les Paul and Mary Ford (1965)
Les Paul Now! (1968)
Guitar Tapestry
Lover
The Guitar Artistry of Les Paul (1971)
The World is Still Waiting for the Sunrise (1974) – compilation
The Best of Les Paul with Mary Ford (1974) – compilation
Chester and Lester (1976) – with Chet Atkins
Guitar Monsters (1978) – with Chet Atkins
Les Paul and Mary Ford (1978) – compilation
Multi Trackin' (1979)
All-Time Greatest Hits (1983) – compilation
The Very Best of Les Paul with Mary Ford
Famille Nombreuse (1992) – compilation
The World Is Waiting (1992) – compilation
The Best of the Capitol Masters: Selections from "The Legend and the Legacy" Box Set (1992) – compilation
All-Time Greatest Hits (1992) – compilation
Their All-Time Greatest Hits (1995) – compilation
Les Paul: The Legend and the Legacy (1996)
16 Most Requested Songs (1996) – compilation
The Complete Decca Trios – Plus (1936–1947) (1997) – compilation
California Melodies (2003)
Les Paul – The Legendary Fred Waring Broadcasts (2004)
Les Paul & Friends: American Made World Played (2005)
Les Paul and Friends: A Tribute to a Legend (2008)
Singles
"It's Been a Long, Long Time"—Bing Crosby with Les Paul & His Trio (1945), #1 on Billboard Pop singles chart, 1 week, December 8
"Rumors Are Flying"—The Andrews Sisters with Les Paul and Vic Schoen & His Orchestra (1946)
"This Can't Be Love"//"Up And At 'Em"—The Les Paul Trio (1946), V-Disc 664A
"Guitar Boogie" (1947)
"Lover (When You're Near Me)" (1948)
"Brazil" (1948)
"What Is This Thing Called Love?" (1948)
"Suspicion"—as Rhubarb Red with Fos Carling (1948)
"Nola" (1950)
"Goofus" (1950)
"Dry My Tears"/"Cryin'" (1950)
"Little Rock Getaway" (1950/1951)
"Tennessee Waltz"—Les Paul & Mary Ford (1950/1951), #1, Cashbox
"Mockin' Bird Hill"—Les Paul & Mary Ford (1951), #1, Cashbox
"How High The Moon"—Les Paul & Mary Ford (1951), #1, Billboard Pop singles chart, 9 weeks, April 21 – June 16; #1, Cashbox, 2 weeks; #2, R&B chart
"I Wish I Had Never Seen Sunshine"—Les Paul & Mary Ford (1951)
"The World Is Waiting for the Sunrise"—Les Paul & Mary Ford (1951), #2, Billboard; #3, Cashbox
"Just One More Chance"—Les Paul & Mary Ford (1951)
"Jazz Me Blues" (1951)
"Josephine" (1951)
"Whispering" (1951)
"Jingle Bells" (1951)
"Tiger Rag"—Les Paul & Mary Ford (1952), #2, Billboard; #8, Cashbox
"I'm Confessin' (That I Love You)"—Les Paul & Mary Ford (1952)
"Carioca" (1952)
"In the Good Old Summertime"—Les Paul & Mary Ford (1952)
"Smoke Rings"—Les Paul & Mary Ford (1952)
"Meet Mister Callaghan" (1952), #5, Billboard
"Take Me in Your Arms and Hold Me"—Les Paul & Mary Ford (1952)
"Lady of Spain" (1952)
"My Baby's Coming Home"—Les Paul & Mary Ford (1952)
"Bye Bye Blues"—Les Paul & Mary Ford (1953)
"I'm Sitting on Top of the World"—Les Paul & Mary Ford (1953)
"Sleep" (Fred Waring's theme song) (1953)
"Vaya Con Dios"—Les Paul & Mary Ford (1953), #1, Billboard Pop singles chart, 11 weeks, August 8 – October 3, November 7–14; #1, Cashbox, 5 weeks
"Johnny (Is The Boy for Me)"—Les Paul & Mary Ford (1953), #15, Billboard; #25, Cashbox
"Don'cha Hear Them Bells"—Les Paul & Mary Ford (1953), #13, Billboard; #28, Cashbox
"The Kangaroo" (1953), #25, Billboard; #23, Cashbox
"I Really Don't Want To Know"—Les Paul & Mary Ford (1954)
"I'm A Fool To Care"—Les Paul & Mary Ford (1954)
"Whither Thou Goest"—Les Paul & Mary Ford (1954)
"Mandolino"—Les Paul & Mary Ford (1954), #19, Billboard
"Song in Blue"—Les Paul & Mary Ford (1954), #17, Cashbox
"Hummingbird"—Les Paul & Mary Ford (1955)
"Amukiriki (The Lord Willing)"—Les Paul & Mary Ford (1955)
"Magic Melody"—Les Paul & Mary Ford (1955)
"Texas Lady"—Les Paul & Mary Ford (1956)
"Moritat" (Theme from "Three Penny Opera") (1956)
"Nuevo Laredo"—Les Paul & Mary Ford (1956)
"Cinco Robles (Five Oaks)"—Les Paul & Mary Ford (1957)
"Put a Ring on My Finger"—Les Paul & Mary Ford (1958)
"All I Need Is You"—Les Paul & Mary Ford (1959)
"Jura (I Swear I Love You)"—Les Paul & Mary Ford (1961)
"Love Sneakin' Up on You"—Les Paul, Joss Stone & Sting (2005)
Compositions
Paul was also a prolific composer. Some of the songs he wrote were "Song in Blue", "Cryin'", "Hip-Billy Boogie", "Suspicion", "Mandolino", "Magic Melody", "Don'cha Hear Them Bells", "The Kangaroo", "Big-Eyed Gal", "Deep in the Blues", "All I Need is You", "Take a Warning", "Mammy's Boogie", "Up And At 'Em", "Pacific Breeze", "Golden Sands", "Hawaiian Charms", "Mountain Railroad", "Move Along, Baby (Don't Waste My Time)", "Dry My Tears", "I Don't Want You No More", "Doing the Town", "Les' Blues",[92] "No Strings Attached", "Subterfuge", "Lament For Strings", "Five Alarm Fire", "You Can't Be Fit as a Fiddle (When You're Tight as a Drum)", and "Walkin' and Whistlin' Blues".

See also
	Biography portal
	Music portal
	Wikimedia Commons has media related to Les Paul.
	Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lester William Polsfuss.
Ampex
Discovery World
Gibson Les Paul
Gibson SG
List of Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees
Mary Ford
Les Paul and Mary Ford
References
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 Guitarist and recording pioneer Les Paul dies, aged 94 Archived August 21, 2009, at the Wayback Machine. The List. August 13, 2009.
 "The Wizard of Waukesha". Pbs.org. Archived from the original on February 25, 2012.
 Houston, Frank (July 8, 1999). "Father of invention". Salon.com. Archived from the original on August 16, 2009. Retrieved August 14, 2009.
 Staff writer (October 12, 2005). "Les Paul, 90, Releases Tribute Album". CBC. Accessed August 24, 2009. Archived January 16, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
 Swing Licks for C6th Lap Steel Archived January 6, 2009, at the Wayback Machine. The Steel Guitar Forum.
 Benson, John (November 12, 2008). Rock hall to honor Les Paul Archived July 17, 2011, at the Wayback Machine. Vindy.com.
 "Exhibits | The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum". Rockhall.com. Archived from the original on February 1, 2012. Retrieved March 27, 2011.
 "The Architects of Rock and Roll featuring Les Paul, Alan Freed and Sam Phillips | The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum". Rockhall.com. Archived from the original on August 10, 2011. Retrieved August 19, 2011.
 "Les Paul Foundation Website". Archived from the original on February 11, 2014. Retrieved February 4, 2014.
 Farber, Jim (August 13, 2009). "Electric Guitar Hero Les Paul Dead at 94: Hit-Maker, Musical Designer, Pioneer" Archived August 18, 2009, at the Wayback Machine. Daily News). Accessed August 24, 2009.
 Robb Lawrence (2008). The Early Years of the Les Paul Legacy, 1915–1963. New York: Hal Leonard Books. p. 2.
 Masino, Susan; Paul, Les (2003). Famous Wisconsin Musicians. Oregon, Wisconsin: Badger Books. pp. 9–11. ISBN 1-878569-88-0.
 Henry, David (August 13, 2009). "Les Paul, Pioneer of Electric Guitar, Inventor, Dies at 94". Bloomberg. Accessed August 24, 2009.
 American Masters (2007 Season)—"Les Paul: Chasing Sound" Archived March 18, 2008, at the Wayback Machine—thirteen WNET New York
 "Articles". Classic Jazz Guitar. Archived from the original on July 8, 2011. Retrieved March 27, 2011.
 (August 14, 2009). [1] Archived March 1, 2017, at the Wayback Machine The New York Times (website registration required).
 Ladd, Patty (October 22, 2009). "Cinemax to honor 'Edison' of music". The Vindicator. Archived from the original on September 4, 2015. Retrieved May 4, 2011.
 "Les Paul: Inventor and Performer". Les Paul Foundation website. Les Paul Foundation. Archived from the original on February 4, 2014. Retrieved February 4, 2014.
 "ClassicJazzGuitar.com". ClassicJazzGuitar.com. Archived from the original on March 13, 2012. Retrieved September 10, 2012.
 Kaufman, Gil. "Paul Les". MTV News. Archived from the original on August 16, 2009.
 Cook, Kenneth. "Book Review: "The Music of Django Reinhardt," by Benjamin Givan." ARSC Journal 42.1 (2011): 86–87.
 Balmer, Paul (2003). Stéphane Grappelli: With and Without Django. Sanctuary. ISBN 978-1860744532. Archived from the original on September 4, 2015. Retrieved June 22, 2015.
 liner notes from Chet Atkins/Jim Atkins 1963 RCA Camden LP #CAL-753, "The Guitar Genius"
 Paul, Les (2005). Les Paul: In His Own Words. New York: Gemstone Publishing. ISBN 978-1-60360-050-7.
 Atkins, Chet; Neely, Bill (1974). Country Gentleman. Chicago: H. Regnery. ISBN 978-0-8092-9051-2
 Tianen, Dave (August 26, 2009). "The Wizard of Waukesha". Milwaukee Journal Sentinel. Archived from the original on February 25, 2012.
 Sforza, John: "Swing It! The Andrews Sisters Story;" University Press of Kentucky, 2000; 289 pages.
 Fresh Air from WHYY. "Guitar Hero: Les Paul, 1915–2009". Npr.org. Archived from the original on June 28, 2011. Retrieved March 27, 2011.
 "The Log". DK Images. Archived from the original on July 10, 2011. Retrieved March 27, 2011.
 "Epiphone: A History". Epiphone.com. Archived from the original on November 4, 2015. Retrieved February 23, 2012.
 "Archived copy". Archived from the original on April 3, 2018. Retrieved June 6, 2019.
 Lawrence, Robb (2008). The Early Years of the Les Paul Legacy: 1915–1963. Hal Leonard Corp. p. 304. ISBN 978-0634048616.
 "Interview | July 19, 1999, at the Iridium jazz club, New York City". Jinx Magazine. July 19, 1999. Archived from the original on July 13, 2011. Retrieved March 27, 2011.
 "Epiphone Les Paul Standard". Epiphone.com. Archived from the original on February 18, 2012. Retrieved February 23, 2012.
 "Patents". Google. Retrieved March 27, 2011.
 "Les Paul Guitar Innovations". Archived from the original on March 11, 2014. Retrieved March 11, 2014.
 Kane, Brian (August 2011). "Acousmatic Fabrications: Les Paul and the 'Les Paulverizer'". Journal of Visual Culture. 10 (2): 216. doi:10.1177/1470412911402892.
 Waksman, Steve (May 2010). "Les Paul: In Memoriam". Popular Music & Society. 33 (2): 271. doi:10.1080/03007761003707944.
 Waksman, Steve (May 2010). "Les Paul: In Memoriam". Popular Music & Society. 33 (2): 3. doi:10.1080/03007761003707944.
 Lawrence, Robb (2008). The Early Years of the Les Paul Legacy, 1915-1963. Hal Leonard. pp. 19–. ISBN 978-0-634-04861-6. Retrieved May 10, 2011.
 "Sel-sync and the "Ocotpus": How Came to be the First Recorder to Minimize Successive Copying in Overdubs" (PDF). ARSC Journal. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 19, 2011. Retrieved March 27, 2011.
 "Sel-sync and the "Octopus": How Came to be the First Recorder to Minimize Successive Copying in Overdubs" (PDF). ARSC Journal. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 19, 2011. Retrieved March 27, 2011.
 Bode, Harald (October 1984). "History of Electronic Sound Modification". Journal of the Audio Engineering Society. 32 (10): 730.
 Thompson, Art (1997). Stompbox: A History of Guitar, Fuzzes, Flangers, Phasers, Echoes & Wahs. San Francisco, Calif.: Miller Freeman. p. 24. ISBN 0-87930-479-0.
 "2007 AES Report – Where Audio Comes Alive". Mix. Archived from the original on September 17, 2014. After the event, Narma, who also designed and built Les Paul's 8-track recording console, was reacquainted with Les, as the two had not seen each other since 1973.
 Richard Buskin. "Classic Tracks: Les Paul & Mary Ford 'How High The Moon'". Sound On Sound (January 2007). Archived from the original on July 20, 2008. Retrieved September 5, 2009.
 Bill DeMain. "The Best of the Capitol Masters (90th Birthday Edition)". Puremusic.com. Archived from the original on February 9, 2013. Retrieved November 15, 2012.
 "The Les Paul Show". Archive.org. Archived from the original on June 29, 2011. Retrieved March 27, 2011.
 Cellini, Joe (n.d.). "Les Paul: Invented Here". Apple Inc. Archived from the original on February 22, 2009. Retrieved August 24, 2009.
 Baker, Sue. "Les Paul Inventor and performer". Les Paul Foundation. Archived from the original on February 4, 2014. Retrieved February 4, 2014.
 "Les Paul Obtains Divorce Archived March 10, 2018, at the Wayback Machine", The New York Times, December 18, 1964.
 "Iridium Jazz Club". Iridium Jazz Club. Archived from the original on March 5, 2011. Retrieved March 27, 2011.
 Milicia, Joe (November 7, 2008). "Guitar hero Les Paul ready for Rock Hall tribute". Arizona Daily Star. Archived from the original on July 28, 2018. Retrieved July 28, 2018.
 Foster, D.R. (June 1, 2009). "Les is more: 93 years old and cooler than you—A Night with the Longstanding Guitar Great" Archived February 23, 2014, at the Wayback Machine. The A.V. Club. Accessed August 15, 2009
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j6WS77mGcjo
 Nicoleanu, Anca (February 2, 2007). "Zici că n-ai plagiat şi, gata, ai scăpat". Archived from the original on June 4, 2009. Retrieved June 19, 2009. (non-English language)
 "Johnny is the boy for me; musical composition with lyrics. By Paddy Roberts & Marcel Stellman, m Les Paul, pseud. of Lester W. Polfuss". www.copyrightencyclopedia.com. Archived from the original on September 4, 2015. Retrieved July 28, 2018. On September 3, 1981, the copyright to 'Johnny (Is the Boy for Me)' was renewed, showing Les Paul as the composer of the music. This was the mandatory 28 year renewal requirement for copyright.
 Lawrence, Robb (2008). The early years of the Les Paul legacy, 1915-1963 (1st ed.). Milwaukee: Hal Leonard Corporation. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-634-04861-6.
 "Les Paul's Baby Dies." New York Times (1923-Current File), Dec 01, 1954
 Steve Miller at AllMusic
 Hernandez, Raoul (July 22, 2016). "Space Cowboy Steve Miller's Not Joking". The Austin Chronicle. Archived from the original on February 13, 2017. Retrieved February 12, 2017.
 Fredrix, Emily via Associated Press. "Guitarist Les Paul plays for hometown" Archived April 28, 2017, at the Wayback Machine, USA Today, May 10, 2007. Accessed April 27, 2017. "Paul, who lives in Mahwah, N.J., has donated many artifacts and memorabilia for the planned exhibit, a $3 million project expected to open in 2010."
 Rosen, Jody (June 25, 2019). "Here Are Hundreds More Artists Whose Tapes Were Destroyed in the UMG Fire". The New York Times. Retrieved June 28, 2019.
 "Les Paul Obituary". New York Times. Archived from the original on December 2, 2017. Retrieved September 29, 2009.
 Newels, Eric (August 17, 2009). "Music Great Les Paul Dies at 94". idiomag. Archived from the original on March 27, 2012. Retrieved August 21, 2009. Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
 Staff writer (August 13, 2009). "Les Paul Remembered: Guitar Greats on Their True Hero". Rolling Stone. Archived from the original on August 16, 2009. Retrieved August 13, 2009.
 Jack Malvern (August 13, 2009). "Musicians pay tribute to the 'original guitar hero' Les Paul". The Times. London. Retrieved August 13, 2009.
 Sheridan, Luke (August 14, 2009). "Les Paul, 94: Guitar legend". The Associated Press via Toronto Star. Archived from the original on August 16, 2009. Retrieved August 15, 2009. Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
 Itzkoff, Dave (August 18, 2009). "Funeral Plans Announced for Les Paul". The New York Times. Archived from the original on July 14, 2011. Retrieved May 7, 2010.
 "Les Paul comes home to his mother". JSOnline. Archived from the original on May 5, 2011. Retrieved March 27, 2011.
 "Lifetime Honors – National Medal of Arts". Nea.gov. Archived from the original on August 26, 2013. Retrieved March 27, 2011.
 "Inventor Profile, National Inventors Hall of Fame". Invent.org. Archived from the original on June 10, 2011. Retrieved March 27, 2011.
 Alloway, Kristen (May 2, 2010). "Jack Nicholson, Susan Sarandon are among 15 inducted into N.J. Hall of Fame". NJ.Com. New Jersey On-Line LLC. Archived from the original on October 16, 2015. Retrieved June 22, 2015.
 Grammy Hall of Fame Database Archived July 7, 2015, at the Wayback Machine
 "Grammy Hall of Fame Award Past Recipients". grammy.com. Archived from the original on January 22, 2011. Retrieved August 19, 2009.
 Braunstein, Michael. "Les Paul Foundation: Les Paul's Legacy Timeline". Les Paul Foundation. Archived from the original on January 7, 2014. Retrieved January 7, 2014.
 "Technical GRAMMY Award". grammy.com. Archived from the original on October 26, 2014. Retrieved January 29, 2012.
 Dave on (August 24, 2009). "Fretbase, Time Magazine Picks the 10 Best Electric Guitar Players". Fretbase.com. Archived from the original on April 2, 2011. Retrieved March 27, 2011.
 "100 Greatest Guitarists: Les Paul". Rolling Stone. November 23, 2011. Archived from the original on July 13, 2012. Retrieved September 2, 2017.
 Landers, Rick (July 3, 2005). "Les Paul Tribute Concert at Carnegie Hall". Modern Guitars Magazine. Archived from the original on March 19, 2009. Retrieved August 14, 2009.
 Ferris, D.X. (November 17, 2008). "Slash, Billy Gibbons Jam for Les Paul at Rock Hall's American Music Masters Concert". Rolling Stone. Archived from the original on September 24, 2017. Retrieved February 12, 2017.
 Staff, Writer (June 2, 2015). "Yearlong celebration marking Les Paul's 100th birthday to kick off in Times Square next week". Associated Press. Archived from the original on June 22, 2015. Retrieved June 22, 2015.
 "Les Paul: Chasing Sound". American Masters. Archived from the original on March 19, 2018. Retrieved March 21, 2018.
 Williams, Scott (April 30, 2008). "Discovery World Lands Les Paul Exhibit—Guitar Wiz Sees No Effect on Waukesha Museum" Archived June 30, 2008, at the Wayback Machine Milwaukee Journal Sentinel. Accessed August 24, 2009.
 Williams, Scott (May 5, 2008). "Their Role is Instrumental—Musicians' Connections Help bring Les Paul Exhibit to Milwaukee". Milwaukee Journal Sentinel. Archived from the original on October 14, 2012. Retrieved August 24, 2009.
 Tianen, Dave (June 23, 2008). "Paul Brings Bit of Manhattan to the Pabst" Archived July 2, 2008, at the Wayback Machine. Milwaukee Journal Sentinel. Accessed August 24, 2009.
 Farabaugh, Kane (December 27, 2007). "At 92, Music Pioneer Les Paul Still Performing". Voice of America. Archived from the original on August 22, 2009. Retrieved August 24, 2009. Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
 "Les Paul Foundation". Les Paul Foundation. Archived from the original on February 11, 2014. Retrieved February 4, 2014.
 "Les Paul Live in New York City". The Library of Congress. Archived from the original on March 22, 2018. Retrieved March 21, 2018.
 Roberts, David (2006). British Hit Singles & Albums (19th ed.). London: Guinness World Records Limited. p. 420. ISBN 1-904994-10-5.
 Paul, Les. The Guitar Magic of Les Paul. 10 original guitar solos with piano and 2nd guitar accompaniment. Leeds Music Corporation, New York, 1947.
Bibliography
Garrett, Charles, ed. "Paul Les [Polfuss, Lester Williams]" The Grove Dictionary of American Music, 2nd edition. Oxford University Press. 2006. Print.
External links
Official website The Les Paul Foundation
Remembering Les Paul Audio interviews at WGN Radio
The Les Paul Show, Audio archive (free mp3s) of Les Paul's radio show
"Classic Tracks: Les Paul & Mary Ford 'How High the Moon'" at Sound on Sound
Les Paul's final interview at Performing Musician
NAMM Oral History Program Interview Audio interview (2001)
Awards for Les Paul
vte
Grammy Award
Authority control Edit this at Wikidata	
BIBSYS: 6033558BNE: XX937552BNF: cb13898303m (data)GND: 119397293ISNI: 0000 0003 6850 614XLCCN: n81126814LNB: 000084965MusicBrainz: f671ebd2-917d-466f-b7bc-07c60e4d8990NDL: 00621264NKC: js20070525006NLA: 35896138NLA-person: 1135965NLI: 002086011NTA: 070757410SELIBR: 332690SNAC: w62d1r4vSUDOC: 160719844VIAF: 119989378WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 119989378
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Epiphone Les Paul 100
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Epiphone LP-100
Epiphone Les Paul 100.jpg
Manufacturer	Epiphone
Period	1993-Current
Construction
Body type	Solid
Neck joint	Bolt On
Scale	24.75"
Woods
Body	Mahogany Body/ Maple Veneer Top
Neck	Mahogany
Fretboard	Rosewood with Dot markers
Hardware
Bridge	Stopbar
Pickup(s)	700T, 650R, Both Ceramic Magnet
Colors available
Ebony, Heritage Cherry Sunburst, Vintage Sunburst[1]

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
Find sources: "Epiphone Les Paul 100" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The Epiphone Les Paul 100 (LP-100) is a solid body electric guitar first produced in 1993[2] and is based on the Gibson Les Paul. This budget priced, Gibson-authorized version of the Les Paul model,originally introduced with a carved maple top by Jim "Epi" Rosenberg at NAMM 1993, is made as a guitar with beginner and value minded consumers in mind.[3] The Les Paul 100 is outwardly very similar to the original Les Pauls. It has a traditionally shaped, single cut mahogany body, thinner than most Les Paul models, with two tone controls, two volume controls and the three position Rhythm/Treble switch. It also sports a stopbar tailpiece and Tune-o-matic bridge, like the higher end models.[1]

The main difference with the Les Pauls is the guitar's mahogany bolt-on neck, as opposed to the set-in neck normally found on Les Pauls and other Gibson guitars. The fingerboard also sports dot inlays instead of the Les Paul's Trapezoid inlays.[1]

The LP-100 currently comes with open coil 700T & 650R Ceramic humbucker pickups.[1]

There have been several variations of the LP-100 model, Including the LP-100 Studio, Standard (Japan), Studio-Standard (flame-top) and Deluxe (gold hardware).

Les Paul 300
Also in this range of instruments was the LP-300.[4] The LP-300 and LP-300 Standard ran alongside of the LP-100 and began production at the same time. The LP-300 was a slightly upscale version of the LP-100. The main differences between the LP-100 and LP-300 were the body woods and fingerboard inlays. The LP-300 had a laminated maple body and block inlays.[4] The LP-300 Standard also had a laminated maple body, but trapezoid inlays. The LP-300 was produced from 1989-1992 and was available in a Starter Pack.[4] The Standard version was produced from 1991-1997.

References
 "Epiphone Les Paul 100". Epiphone.com.
 The Epiphone Guitar Book, Walter Carter, 2012
 The Epiphone Guitar Book, Walter Carter, 2012
 1991 Epiphone Catalog
Epiphone Technical Support, used as reference.

External links
Epiphone LP-100

Stub icon	This article relating to guitars is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Categories: Epiphone electric guitarsGuitar stubs
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Indian Space Research Organisation
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
Indian Space Research Organisation
Indian Space Research Organisation Logo.svg
ISRO logo (adopted in 2002)[1][2]
Abbreviation	ISRO
Formation	15 August 1969; 50 years ago
(1962 as INCOSPAR)
Headquarters	Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
12°57′56″N 77°41′53″ECoordinates: 12°57′56″N 77°41′53″E
Administrator
K. Sivan (Chairman)[3]
Primary spaceport
Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SHAR), Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh, India
Parent organisation
Department of Space
Budget
Increase ₹10,252 crore (US$1.5 billion) (2019–20 est.)[4][5]
Staff
16,815 as of 2019[6]
Website	ISRO.gov.in
The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO, /ˈɪsroʊ/) is the space agency of the Government of India headquartered in the city of Bengaluru. Its vision is to "harness space technology for national development while pursuing space science research and planetary exploration."[7] The Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) was established in the tenure of Jawaharlal Nehru [8][9][10][11][12][13] under the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) in 1962, with the urging of scientist Vikram Sarabhai recognizing the need in space research. INCOSPAR grew and became ISRO in 1969,[14] also under the DAE.[15][16] In 1972, Government of India setup a Space Commission and the Department of Space (DOS),[17] bringing ISRO under the DOS. The establishment of ISRO thus institutionalized space research activities in India.[18] It is managed by the DOS, which reports to the prime minister of India.[19]

ISRO built India's first satellite, Aryabhata, which was launched by the Soviet Union on 19 April 1975.[20] It was named after the mathematician Aryabhata. In 1980, Rohini became the first satellite to be placed in orbit by an Indian-made launch vehicle, SLV-3. ISRO subsequently developed two other rockets: the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) for launching satellites into polar orbits and the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) for placing satellites into geostationary orbits. These rockets have launched numerous communications satellites and Earth observation satellites. Satellite navigation systems like GAGAN and IRNSS have been deployed. In January 2014, ISRO used an indigenous cryogenic engine in a GSLV-D5 launch of the GSAT-14.[21][22]

ISRO sent a lunar orbiter, Chandrayaan-1, on 22 October 2008 and a Mars orbiter, Mars Orbiter Mission, on 5 November 2013, which entered Mars orbit on 24 September 2014, making India the first nation to succeed on its maiden attempt to Mars, and ISRO the fourth space agency in the world as well as the first space agency in Asia to reach Mars orbit.[23] On 18 June 2016, ISRO launched twenty satellites in a single vehicle,[24] and on 15 February 2017, ISRO launched one hundred and four satellites in a single rocket (PSLV-C37), a world record.[25][26] ISRO launched its heaviest rocket, Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle-Mark III (GSLV-Mk III), on 5 June 2017 and placed a communications satellite GSAT-19 in orbit. With this launch, ISRO became capable of launching 4-ton heavy satellites into GTO. On 22 July 2019, ISRO launched its second lunar mission Chandrayaan-2, which consists of an orbiter, lander and rover, to study the distribution of lunar water and lunar geology.

Future plans include development of the Unified Launch Vehicle, Small Satellite Launch Vehicle, development of a reusable launch vehicle, human spaceflight, a space station, interplanetary probes, and a solar spacecraft mission.[27]


Contents
1	Formative years
2	Goals and objectives
3	Organisation structure and facilities
3.1	Research facilities
3.2	Test facilities
3.3	Construction and launch facilities
3.4	Tracking and control facilities
3.5	Human resource development
3.6	Antrix Corporation (Commercial Wing)
3.7	Other facilities
4	Launch vehicle fleet
4.1	Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV)
4.2	Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV)
4.3	Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV)
4.4	Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV)
4.5	Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark-III (GSLV-Mk III)
5	Satellite programmes
5.1	The INSAT series
5.2	The IRS series
5.3	Radar Imaging Satellites
5.4	Other satellites
5.5	South Asia Satellite
5.6	GAGAN satellite navigation system
5.7	IRNSS satellite navigation system - NAVIC
6	Human Spaceflight Programme
6.1	Technology demonstrations
6.2	Astronaut training and other facilities
6.3	Crewed spacecraft
6.4	Space station
7	Planetary sciences and astronomy
7.1	Astrosat
7.2	XPoSat
8	Extraterrestrial exploration
8.1	Lunar: Chandrayaan-1
8.2	Mars Orbiter Mission (Mangalayaan)
8.3	Lunar: Chandrayaan-2
9	Future projects
9.1	Forthcoming satellites
9.2	Future extraterrestrial exploration
9.2.1	Mangalyaan 2
9.2.2	Aditya-L1
9.2.3	Venus and Jupiter
9.2.4	Lunar missions
9.3	Space transportation
9.3.1	Small Satellite Launch Vehicle
9.3.2	Reusable Launch Vehicle-Technology Demonstrator (RLV-TD)
9.3.3	Unified Launch Vehicle
9.3.4	Future Super-heavy Lift Launch Vehicle
10	Space Technology Incubation Centre
11	Applications
11.1	Telecommunication
11.2	Resource management
11.3	Military
11.4	Academic
11.5	Telemedicine
11.6	Biodiversity Information System
11.7	Cartography
12	International cooperations
12.1	ISRO satellites launched by foreign agencies
13	Statistics
14	Controversies
14.1	S-band spectrum scam
15	See also
16	References
16.1	Citations
16.2	Sources
17	Further reading
18	External links
Formative years

Vikram Sarabhai, first chairperson of INCOSPAR, which would later be called ISRO
Modern space research in India is traced to the 1920s, when scientist S. K. Mitra conducted a series of experiments leading to the sounding of the ionosphere by applying ground-based radio methods in Kolkata.[28] Later, Indian scientists like C.V. Raman and Meghnad Saha contributed to scientific principles applicable in space sciences.[28] However, it was the period after 1945 that saw important developments being made in coordinated space research in India.[28] Organised space research in India was spearheaded by two scientists: Vikram Sarabhai—founder of the Physical Research Laboratory at Ahmedabad—and Homi Bhabha, who established the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research in 1945.[28] Engineers were drawn from the Indian Ordnance Factories on deputation to harness their knowledge of propellants and advanced metallurgy as the Ordnance factories were the only organisation specialising in these technologies at that time.[citation needed] Initial experiments in space sciences included the study of cosmic radiation, high altitude and airborne testing, deep underground experimentation at the Kolar mines—one of the deepest mining sites in the world—and studies of the upper atmosphere.[29] Studies were carried out at research laboratories, universities, and independent locations.[29][30]

In 1950, the Department of Atomic Energy was founded with Bhabha as its secretary.[30] The department provided funding for space research throughout India.[31] During this time, tests continued on aspects of meteorology and the Earth's magnetic field, a topic that was being studied in India since the establishment of the observatory at Colaba in 1823. In 1954, the Uttar Pradesh state observatory was established at the foothills of the Himalayas.[30] The Rangpur Observatory was set up in 1957 at Osmania University, Hyderabad. Space research was further encouraged by the government of India.[31] In 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1 and opened up possibilities for the rest of the world to conduct a space launch.[31]

The Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) was set up in 1962 by the efforts of India's first prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru.[8]

Goals and objectives
The prime objective of ISRO is to use space technology and its application to various national tasks.[32] The Indian space programme was driven by the vision of Vikram Sarabhai, considered the father of the Indian space programme.[33] As he said in 1969:

There are some who question the relevance of space activities in a developing nation. To us, there is no ambiguity of purpose. We do not have the fantasy of competing with the economically advanced nations in the exploration of the Moon or the planets or manned space-flight. But we are convinced that if we are to play a meaningful role nationally, and in the community of nations, we must be second to none in the application of advanced technologies to the real problems of man and society, which we find in our country. And we should note that the application of sophisticated technologies and methods of analysis to our problems is not to be confused with embarking on grandiose schemes, whose primary impact is for show rather than for progress measured in hard economic and social terms.

— Vikram Sarabhai, [34]
Former president of India, A. P. J. Abdul Kalam, said:

Very many individuals with myopic vision questioned the relevance of space activities in a newly independent nation which was finding it difficult to feed its population. But neither Prime Minister Nehru nor Prof. Sarabhai had any ambiguity of purpose. Their vision was very clear: if Indians were to play meaningful role in the community of nations, they must be second to none in the application of advanced technologies to their real-life problems. They had no intention of using it merely as a means of displaying our might.

— A. P. J. Abdul Kalam, [35]
India's economic progress has made its space program more visible and active as the country aims for greater self-reliance in space technology.[36] In 2008, India launched as many as eleven satellites, including nine foreign and went on to become the first nation to launch ten satellites on one rocket.[36] ISRO has put into operation two major satellite systems: the Indian National Satellites (INSAT) for communication services, and the Indian Remote Sensing Programme (IRS) satellites for management of natural resources.

INCOSPAR was established in 1962 by Jawaharlal Nehru
INCOSPAR was established in 1962 by Jawaharlal Nehru
In July 2012, Abdul Kalam said that research was being done by ISRO and DRDO for developing cost-reduction technologies for access to space.[37]

Organisation structure and facilities

The organisational structure of the Department of Space of the Government of India
ISRO is managed by the Department of Space (DoS) of the Government of India. DoS itself falls under the authority of the Space Commission and manages the following agencies and institutes:[38][39][40]

Indian Space Research Organisation
Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC), Thiruvananthapuram.
Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC), Thiruvananthapuram.
Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC-SHAR), Sriharikota.
ISRO Propulsion Complex (IPRC), Mahendragiri.
ISRO Satellite Centre (ISAC), Bengaluru.
Space Applications Centre (SAC), Ahmedabad.
National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC), Hyderabad.
ISRO Inertial Systems Unit (IISU), Thiruvananthapuram.
Development and Educational Communication Unit (DECU), Ahmedabad.
Master Control Facility (MCF), Hassan, Karnataka.
ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network (ISTRAC), Bengaluru.
Laboratory for Electro-Optics Systems (LEOS), Bengaluru.
Indian Institute of Remote Sensing (IIRS), Dehradun.
Human Space Flight Centre (HSFC), Bengaluru.
Directorate of Space Situational Awareness and Management, Peenya, Bengaluru.
Antrix Corporation – The marketing arm of ISRO, Bengaluru.
Physical Research Laboratory (PRL), Ahmedabad.
National Atmospheric Research Laboratory (NARL), Gadanki, Andhra pradesh.
North-Eastern Space Applications Centre[41] (NE-SAC), Umiam.
Semi-Conductor Laboratory (SCL), Mohali.
Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST), Thiruvananthapuram – India's space university.
Research facilities
Facility	Location	Description
Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre	Thiruvananthapuram	The largest ISRO base is also the main technical centre and the venue of development of the SLV-3, ASLV, and PSLV series.[42] The base supports India's Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station and the Rohini Sounding Rocket programme.[42] This facility is also developing the GSLV series.[42]
Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre	Thiruvananthapuram and Bengaluru	The LPSC handles design, development, testing and implementation of liquid propulsion control packages, liquid stages and liquid engines for launch vehicles and satellites.[42] The testing of these systems is largely conducted at IPRC at Mahendragiri.[42] The LPSC, Bangalore also produces precision transducers.[43]
Physical Research Laboratory	Ahmedabad	Solar planetary physics, infrared astronomy, geo-cosmo physics, plasma physics, astrophysics, archaeology, and hydrology are some of the branches of study at this institute.[42] An observatory at Udaipur also falls under the control of this institution.[42]
Semi-Conductor Laboratory	Chandigarh	Research & Development in the field of semiconductor technology, micro-electro mechanical systems and process technologies relating to semiconductor processing.
National Atmospheric Research Laboratory	Tirupati	The NARL carries out fundamental and applied research in atmospheric and space sciences.
Space Applications Centre	Ahmedabad	The SAC deals with the various aspects of the practical use of space technology.[42] Among the fields of research at the SAC are geodesy, satellite based telecommunications, surveying, remote sensing, meteorology, environment monitoring etc.[42] The SAC also operates the Delhi Earth Station, which is located in Delhi and is used for demonstration of various SATCOM experiments in addition to normal SATCOM operations.[44]
North-Eastern Space Applications Centre	Shillong	Providing developmental support to North East by undertaking specific application projects using remote sensing, GIS, satellite communication and conducting space science research.
Test facilities
Facility	Location	Description
ISRO Propulsion Complex	Mahendragiri	Formerly called LPSC-Mahendragiri, was declared a separate centre. It handles testing and assembly of liquid propulsion control packages, liquid engines and stages for launch vehicles and satellites.[42]
Construction and launch facilities
Facility	Location	Description
U R Rao Satellite Centre	Bengaluru	The venue of eight successful spacecraft projects is also one of the main satellite technology bases of ISRO. The facility serves as a venue for implementing indigenous spacecraft in India.[42] The satellites Aaryabhata, Bhaskara, APPLE, and IRS-1A were constructed at this site, and the IRS and INSAT satellite series are presently under development here. This centre was formerly known as ISRO Satellite Centre.[43]
Laboratory for Electro-Optics Systems	Bengaluru	The Unit of ISRO responsible for the development of altitude sensors for all satellites. The high precision optics for all cameras and payloads in all ISRO satellites are developed at this laboratory, located at Peenya Industrial Estate, Bengaluru.
Satish Dhawan Space Centre	Sriharikota	With multiple sub-sites the Sriharikota island facility acts as a launching site for India's satellites.[42] The Sriharikota facility is also the main launch base for India's sounding rockets.[43] The centre is also home to India's largest Solid Propellant Space Booster Plant (SPROB) and houses the Static Test and Evaluation Complex (STEX).[43] The Second Vehicle Assembly Building (SVAB) at Sriharikota is being realised as an additional integration facility, with suitable interfacing to a second launch pad.[45][46]
Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station	Thiruvananthapuram	TERLS is used to launch sounding rockets.
Tracking and control facilities
Facility	Location	Description
Indian Deep Space Network (IDSN)	Bengaluru	This network receives, processes, archives and distributes the spacecraft health data and payload data in real time. It can track and monitor satellites up to very large distances, even beyond the Moon.
National Remote Sensing Centre	Hyderabad	The NRSC applies remote sensing to manage natural resources and study aerial surveying.[42] With centres at Balanagar and Shadnagar it also has training facilities at Dehradun acting as the Indian Institute of Remote Sensing.[42]
ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network	Bengaluru (headquarters) and a number of ground stations throughout India and the world.[44]	Software development, ground operations, Tracking Telemetry and Command (TTC), and support is provided by this institution.[42] ISTRAC has Tracking stations throughout the country and all over the world in Port Louis (Mauritius), Bearslake (Russia), Biak (Indonesia) and Brunei.
Master Control Facility	Bhopal; Hassan	Geostationary satellite orbit raising, payload testing, and in-orbit operations are performed at this facility.[47] The MCF has Earth stations and the Satellite Control Centre (SCC) for controlling satellites.[47] A second MCF-like facility named 'MCF-B' is being constructed at Bhopal.[47]
Space Situational Awareness Control Centre	Peenya, Bengaluru	A network of telescopes and radars are being set up under the Directorate of Space Situational Awareness and Management to monitor space debris and to safeguard space-based assets. The new facility will end ISRO’s dependence on Norad. The sophisticated multi-object tracking radar installed in Nellore, a radar in NE India and telescopes in Thiruvananthapuram, Mount Abu and North India will be part of this network.[48][49]
Human resource development
Facility	Location	Description
Indian Institute of Remote Sensing (IIRS)	Dehradun	The Indian Institute of Remote Sensing (IIRS) is a premier training and educational institute set up for developing trained professionals (P.G. and PhD level) in the field of remote sensing, geoinformatics and GPS technology for natural resources, environmental and disaster management. IIRS is also executing many R&D projects on remote sensing and GIS for societal applications. IIRS also runs various outreach programmes (Live & Interactive and e-learning) to build trained skilled human resources in the field of remote sensing and geospatial technologies.
Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST)	Thiruvananthapuram	The institute offers undergraduate and graduate courses in aerospace engineering, avionics and physical sciences. The students of the first three batches of IIST were inducted into different ISRO centres.
Development and Educational Communication Unit	Ahmedabad	The centre works for education, research, and training, mainly in conjunction with the INSAT programme.[42] The main activities carried out at DECU include GRAMSAT and EDUSAT projects.[43] The Training and Development Communication Channel (TDCC) also falls under the operational control of the DECU.[44]
Space Technology Incubation Centres (S-TICs) at:
National Institute of Technology, Agartala
National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar
National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli
Agartala, Jalandhar, Tiruchirappalli	The S-TICs opened at premier technical universities in India to promote startups to build applications and products in tandem with the industry and would be used for future space missions. The S-TIC will bring the industry, academia and ISRO under one umbrella to contribute towards research and development (R&D) initiatives relevant to the Indian Space Programme.[50]
Antrix Corporation (Commercial Wing)
Main article: Antrix Corporation
Set up as the marketing arm of ISRO, Antrix's job is to promote products, services and technology developed by ISRO.[51][52]

Other facilities
Aerospace Command of India (ACI)
Balasore Rocket Launching Station (BRLS) – Odisha
Development and Educational Communication Unit (DECU)
Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System (IRNSS)
Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR)
Indian Space Science Data Centre (ISSDC)
Integrated Space Cell
Inter University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics (IUCAA)
ISRO Inertial Systems Unit (IISU) – Thiruvananthapuram
National Deep Space Observation Centre (NDSPO)
Regional Remote Sensing Service Centres (RRSSC)
Spacecraft Control Centre (SCC)
Launch vehicle fleet

Comparison of Indian carrier rockets. Left to right: SLV, ASLV, PSLV, GSLV, GSLV Mk.III
During the 1960s and 1970s, India initiated its own launch vehicle programme owing to geopolitical and economic considerations. In the 1960s–1970s, the country developed a sounding rocket programme, and by the 1980s, research had yielded the Satellite Launch Vehicle-3 and the more advanced Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV), complete with operational supporting infrastructure.[53] ISRO further applied its energies to the advancement of launch vehicle technology resulting in the creation of the successful PSLV and GSLV vehicles.

Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV)
Main article: Satellite Launch Vehicle
Status: Decommissioned
The Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV or SLV-3) was a 4-stage solid-propellant light launcher. It was intended to reach a height of 500 kilometres (310 miles) and carry a payload of 40 kilograms (88 pounds).[54] Its first launch took place in 1979 with two more in each subsequent year, and the final launch in 1983. Only two of its four test flights were successful.[55]

Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV)
Main article: ASLV
Status: Decommissioned
The Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV) was a five-stage solid propellant rocket with the capability of placing a 150-kilogram (330-pound) satellite into Low Earth Orbit. This project was started during the early 1980s to develop technologies needed for a payload to be placed into a geostationary orbit. Its design was based on Satellite Launch Vehicle.[56] The first launch test was held in 1987, and after that three others followed in 1988, 1992 and 1994, out of which only two were successful, before it was decommissioned.[55]

Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV)
Main article: PSLV
Status: Active

PSLV C42 on the First Launch Pad
The Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) is an expendable launch system developed by ISRO to allow India to launch its Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellites into Sun synchronous orbits. PSLV can also launch small satellites into geostationary transfer orbit (GTO). The reliability and versatility of the PSLV is proven by the fact that it has launched, as of 2014,[needs update] seventy-one satellites/spacecraft (thirty-one Indian and forty foreign) into a variety of orbits.[57][58] The maximum number of satellites launched by the PSLV in a single launch is 104, in the PSLV-C37 launch on 15 February 2017.[59][60][61]

Decade-wise summary of PSLV launches:

Decade	Successful	Partial success	Failures	Total
1990s	3	1	1	5
2000s	11	0	0	11
2010s	31	0	1	32
Total	45	1	2	48
Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV)
Main article: GSLV
Status: Active

GSLV F11 at Second Launch Pad
The Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) is an expendable launch system developed to enable India to launch its INSAT-type satellites into geostationary orbit and to make India less dependent on foreign rockets. At present, it is ISRO's second-heaviest launch vehicle and is capable of putting a total payload of up to 5 tons to low Earth orbit.[62] The vehicle is built by India, originally with a cryogenic engine purchased from Russia, while the ISRO developed its own cryogenic engine.

The first version of the GSLV (GSLV Mk.I), using the Russian cryogenic stage, became operational in 2004, after an unsuccessful first launch in 2001 and a second, successful development launch in 2003. The first attempt to launch the GSLV Mk.II with an Indian built cryogenic engine, GSLV-F06 carrying GSAT-5P, failed on 25 December 2010. The initial evaluation indicated that loss of control for the strap-on boosters caused the rocket to veer from its intended flight path, forcing a programmed detonation. Sixty-four seconds into the first stage of flight, the rocket began to break up due to the acute angle of attack. The body housing the 3rd stage, the cryogenic stage, incurred structural damage, forcing the range safety team to initiate a programmed detonation of the rocket.[63]

On 5 January 2014, GSLV-D5 launched GSAT-14 into its intended orbit. This marked the first successful flight using the indigenous cryogenic engine CE-7.5, making India the sixth country in the world to have this technology.[21][22]

Again on 27 August 2015, GSLV-D6 launched GSAT-6 into a transfer orbit. ISRO used the indigenously developed Cryogenic Upper Stage (CUS) for third time in this GSLV flight.[64]

On 8 September 2016, GSLV-F05 launched INSAT-3DR, a weather satellite weighing 2,211 kg (4,874 lb) into a geostationary transfer orbit (GTO). GSLV is designed to inject 2–5 tonnes (2.2–5.5 tons) -class of satellites into GTO. The launch took place from the Second Launch Pad at Satish Dhawan Space Centre SHAR (SDSC SHAR), Sriharikota. The GSLV-F05 flight was the first operational flight of GSLV carrying the Cryogenic Upper Stage (CUS). The indigenously developed CUS was carried on board for the fourth time during a GSLV-F05 flight. The GSLV-F05 vehicle is configured with three stages, including the CUS similar to the ones flown during the previous GSLV-D5 and D6 missions in January 2014 and August 2015.[65]

Decade-wise summary of GSLV Launches:

Decade	Successful	Partial success	Failures	Total
2000s	3	1	1	5
2010s	6	0	2	8
Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark-III (GSLV-Mk III)
Main article: GSLV Mk III
Status: Active

GSLV Mk III M1
GSLV-Mk III is a launch vehicle capable to launch four-tonne satellites into geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO). GSLV-Mk III is a three-stage vehicle with a 110-tonne (120-ton) core liquid propellant stage (L-110) flanked by two 200-tonne (220-ton) solid propellant strap-on booster motors (S-200). The upper stage is cryogenic with a propellant loading of 25 tonnes (C-25). The vehicle has a lift-off mass of about 640 tonnes and is 43.43 metres tall. The payload fairing has a diameter of 5 metres and a payload volume of 100 cubic metres.[66] It allows India to become less dependent on foreign rockets for heavy lifting.[67]

On 18 December 2014, ISRO conducted an experimental test-flight of GSLV MK III carrying a crew module, to be used in future human space missions.[68] This suborbital test flight demonstrated the performance of GSLV Mk III in the atmosphere.[69]

A GSLV Mk III-D1 carrying the communication satellite GSAT-19 lifted off from the second launch pad at Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota on 5 June 2017, and placed the communication satellite into a geosynchronous transfer orbit sixteen minutes after takeoff. GSAT-19 satellite has a mass of 3,136 kg (6,914 lb), and is configured around ISRO's standard I-3K bus.[70] On 14 July GSLV-Mk III was supposed to launch Chandrayaan 2 but due to some technical issues regarding the helium tank it was postpone to 22 July 2019. On 22 July 2019 the GSLV-Mk III launched India's second Moon mission, Chandrayaan-2.

Decade-wise summary of GSLV III launches:

Decade	Successful	Partial success	Failures	Total
2010s	4	0	0	4[71]
Satellite programmes

INSAT-1B
India's first satellite, the Aryabhata, was launched by the Soviet Union on 19 April 1975 from Kapustin Yar using a Cosmos-3M launch vehicle. This was followed by the Rohini series of experimental satellites, which were built and launched indigenously. At present, ISRO operates a large number of Earth observation satellites.

The INSAT series
Main article: Indian National Satellite System

INSAT-1B satellite: The broadcasting sector in India is highly dependent on INSAT system.
The Indian National Satellite System (INSAT) is a series of multipurpose geostationary satellites built and launched by ISRO to satisfy the telecommunications, broadcasting, meteorology and search-and-rescue needs of India. Commissioned in 1983, INSAT is the largest domestic communication system in the Asia-Pacific Region. It is a joint venture of the Department of Space, Department of Telecommunications, India Meteorological Department, All India Radio and Doordarshan. The overall coordination and management of INSAT system rests with the Secretary-level INSAT Coordination Committee.

The IRS series
Main article: Indian Remote Sensing satellite
The Indian Remote Sensing satellites (IRS) are a series of Earth observation satellites, built, launched and maintained by ISRO. The IRS series provides remote sensing services to the country and is the largest collection of remote sensing satellites for civilian use in operation today in the world. All the satellites are placed in polar Sun-synchronous orbit and provide data in a variety of spatial, spectral and temporal resolutions to enable several programmes to be undertaken relevant to national development. The initial versions are composed of the 1 (A, B, C, D) nomenclature. The later versions are named based on their area of application including OceanSat, CartoSat, ResourceSat.

Radar Imaging Satellites
ISRO currently operates three Radar Imaging Satellites (RISAT). RISAT-1 was launched from Sriharikota Spaceport on 26 April 2012 on board a PSLV. RISAT-1 carries a C band synthetic-aperture radar (SAR) payload, operating in a multi-polarisation and multi-resolution mode and can provide images with coarse, fine and high spatial resolutions.[72] RISAT-2 which was launched in 2009 due to delay with the indigenously developed C band SAR for RISAT-1. The X-band SAR used by RISAT-2 was obtained from IAI in return for launch services for TecSAR satellite.[73] PSLV-C46 launched the third satellite RISAT-2B intended to replace RISAT-2, on 22 May 2019 at 0000 (UTC) from Satish Dhawan Space Centre with an indigenously developed Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) operating in X Band.[74] This will be followed by a new series of high-resolution optical surveillance satellites called Cartosat-3 series.[75]

Other satellites
ISRO has also launched a set of experimental geostationary satellites known as the GSAT series. Kalpana-1, ISRO's first dedicated meteorological satellite,[76] was launched on a Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle on 12 September 2002.[77] The satellite was originally known as MetSat-1.[78] In February 2003 it was renamed to Kalpana-1 by the Indian prime minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee in memory of Kalpana Chawla – a NASA astronaut of Indian origin who perished in the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster.

ISRO also launched the Indo-French satellite SARAL on 25 February 2013. SARAL (or "Satellite with ARgos and AltiKa") is a cooperative altimetry technology mission. It is being used for monitoring the oceans' surface and sea levels. AltiKa measures ocean surface topography with an accuracy of 8 mm, against 2.5 cm on average using altimeters, and with a spatial resolution of 2 km.[79][80]

In June 2014, ISRO launched French Earth Observation Satellite SPOT-7 (mass 714 kg) along with Singapore's first nano satellite VELOX-I, Canada's satellite CAN-X5, Germany's satellite AISAT, via the PSLV-C23 launch vehicle. It was ISRO's 4th commercial launch.[81][82]

South Asia Satellite
Main article: South Asia Satellite
The South Asia Satellite (GSAT-9) is a geosynchronous communications satellite by ISRO for the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) region. The satellite was launched on 5 May 2017. During the 18th SAARC summit held in Nepal in 2014, Indian prime minister Narendra Modi mooted the idea of a satellite serving the needs of SAARC member nations, part of his 'neighbourhood first' policy. One month after sworn in as the prime minister of India, in June 2014 Modi asked ISRO to develop a SAARC satellite, which can be dedicated as a 'gift' to the neighbors.

It is a satellite for the SAARC region with 12 Ku-band transponders (36 MHz each) and launch using the Indian Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle GSLV Mk-II. The total cost of launching the satellite is estimated to be about ₹2,350,000,000 (₹235 crore). The cost associated with the launch was met by the Government of India. The satellite enables full range of applications and services in the areas of telecommunication and broadcasting applications such as television (TV), direct-to-home (DTH), very small aperture terminals (VSATs), tele-education, telemedicine and disaster management support.

GAGAN satellite navigation system
Main article: GPS-aided geo-augmented navigation
The Ministry of Civil Aviation has decided to implement an indigenous Satellite-Based Regional GPS Augmentation System also known as Space-Based Augmentation System (SBAS) as part of the Satellite-Based Communications, Navigation, Surveillance and Air Traffic Management plan for civil aviation. The Indian SBAS system has been given an acronym GAGAN – GPS Aided GEO Augmented Navigation. A national plan for satellite navigation including implementation of Technology Demonstration System over the Indian air space as a proof of concept has been prepared jointly by Airports Authority of India and ISRO. Technology Demonstration System was completed during 2007 by installing eight Indian Reference Stations at eight Indian airports and linked to the Master Control Centre located near Bangalore.

The first GAGAN navigation payload was fabricated and it was proposed to be flown on GSAT-4 in April 2010. However, GSAT-4 was not placed in orbit as GSLV Mk II-D3 could not complete the mission. Two more GAGAN payloads were to be subsequently flown, one each on two geostationary satellites, GSAT-8 and GSAT-10.

The third GAGAN payload satellite GSAT-15 with an estimated lifespan of 12 years similar to GSAT-10 was successfully launched on 10 November 2015 at 21:34:07 UTC aboard an Ariane 5 rocket.

IRNSS satellite navigation system - NAVIC
Main article: IRNSS

Coverage of IRNSS, with the primary service area marked in darker blue
IRNSS with an operational name NAVIC is an independent regional navigation satellite system being developed by India. It is designed to provide accurate position information service to users in India as well as the region extending up to 1500 km from its borders, which is its primary service area. IRNSS provides two types of services, namely, Standard Positioning Service (SPS) and Restricted Service (RS) and provides a position accuracy of better than 20 m in the primary service area.[83] It is an autonomous regional satellite navigation system being developed by Indian Space Research Organisation, which is under total control of Indian government. The requirement of such a navigation system is driven by the fact that access to global navigation systems like GPS is not guaranteed in hostile situations. ISRO initially planned to launch the constellation of satellites between 2012 and 2014 but the project got delayed by nearly two years.

On 1 July 2013, ISRO launched from Sriharikota the first Indian navigation satellite, the IRNSS-1A aboard a PSLV-C22. The constellation would comprise seven satellites built on the I-1K bus, each weighing around 1,450 kilograms, with three satellites in the Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO) and four in Geosynchronous Earth orbit(GSO).[84]

On 4 April 2014, ISRO launched IRNSS-1B from Sriharikota, its second of seven IRNSS series. 19 minutes after launch, the PSLV-C24 was injected into its orbit. IRNSS-1C was launched on 16 October 2014, and IRNSS-1D on 28 March 2015.[85]

On 20 January 2016, IRNSS-1E was launched aboard PSLV-C31. On 10 March 2016, IRNSS-1F was launched aboard PSLV-C32. On 28 April 2016, IRNSS-1G was launched aboard PSLV-XL-C33; this satellite is the seventh and the last in the IRNSS system and completes India's own navigation system.

ISRO was in the process of developing four back-up satellites to the constellation of existing IRNSS satellites.[86]

On 31 August 2017, ISRO failed in its attempt to launch its eighth regional navigation satellite (IRNSS-1H). The satellite got stuck in the fourth stage of the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle–PSLV-C39. A replacement satellite, IRNSS-1I, was successfully placed into orbit on 12 April 2018.[87]

To boost the accuracy of NAVIC system, ISRO is likely to extend the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System programme with new IRNSS series which will be entirely a new project as per Chairman K Sivan. The new IRNSS series is not meant to extend its coverage beyond the regional boundaries extending upto 1500 kilometer.[88]

Human Spaceflight Programme
Main article: Indian Human Spaceflight Programme
In 2009, the Indian Space Research Organisation proposed a budget of ₹12,400 crore (US$1.8 billion) for its human spaceflight programme.[89] According to the Space Commission, which recommended the budget, an uncrewed flight will be launched after seven years from the final approval[90] and a crewed mission will be launched after 7 years of funding.[91][92] If realised in the stated time-frame, India will become the fourth nation, after the USSR, USA and China, to successfully carry out crewed missions indigenously.

Prime Minister of India Narendra Modi announced in his Independence Day address of August 15, 2018 that India will send astronauts into space by 2022 on the new Gaganyaan spacecraft.[93] After the announcement, ISRO chairman, Sivan, said ISRO has developed most of the technologies needed such as crew module and crew escape system, and that the project would cost less than Rs. 10,000 crore and would include sending at least 3 Indians to space, 300–400 km above in a spacecraft for at least 7 days using a GSLV Mk-III launch vehicle.[94][95] The chance of a female being a member of the first crew is "very high" according to the scientific secretary to the Indian chairman, R. Umamaheswaran.[96]

Technology demonstrations
The Space Capsule Recovery Experiment (SCRE or more commonly SRE or SRE-1)[97] is an experimental spacecraft that was launched on January 10, 2007 using the PSLV C7 rocket, along with three other satellites. It remained in orbit for 12 days before re-entering the Earth's atmosphere and splashing down into the Bay of Bengal.[98]

The SRE-1 was designed to demonstrate the capability to recover an orbiting space capsule, and the technology for performing experiments in the microgravity conditions of an orbiting platform. It was also intended to test thermal protection, navigation, guidance, control, deceleration and flotation systems, as well as study hypersonic aerothermodynamics, management of communication blackouts, and recovery operations. A follow-up project named SRE-2 was cancelled mid-way after years of delay.[99]

on 18 December 2014, ISRO launched the Crew Module Atmospheric Re-entry Experiment aboard the GSLV Mk3 for a sub-orbital flight.[100][101] The crew module separated from the rocket at an altitude of 126 km and underwent free fall. The module heat shield experienced temperature in excess of 1600 °C. Parachutes were deployed at an altitude of 15 km to slow down the module which performed a splashdown in the Bay of Bengal. This flight was used to test orbital injection, separation and re-entry procedures and systems of the Crew Capsule. Also tested were the capsule separation, heat shields and aerobraking systems, deployment of parachute, retro-firing, splashdown, flotation systems and procedures to recover the Crew Capsule from the Bay of Bengal.[102][103]

On 5 July 2018, ISRO conducted a pad abort test of their launch abort system (LAS) at Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota. This is the first in a series of tests to qualify the critical crew escape system technology for future crewed missions. The LAS is designed to quickly pull out the crew to safety in case of emergency.[104]

Astronaut training and other facilities
The newly established Human Space Flight Centre (HSFC) will coordinate the IHSF campagn.[105][106] ISRO will set up an astronaut training centre in Bengaluru to prepare personnel for flights on board the crewed vehicle. The centre will use simulation facilities to train the selected astronauts in rescue and recovery operations and survival in zero gravity, and will undertake studies of the radiation environment of space. ISRO will build centrifuges to prepare astronauts for the acceleration phase of the launch. Existing launch facilities in Satish Dhawan Space Centre will be upgraded for the Indian Human Spaceflight campaign.[107] Human Space Flight Centre and Glavcosmos signed an agreement on July 1, 2019 for the selection, support, medical examination and space training of Indian astronauts.[108] An ISRO Technical Liaison Unit (ITLU) will be setup in Moscow to facilitate the development of some key technologies and establishment of special facilities which are essential to support life in space.[109]

Crewed spacecraft
Main article: Gaganyaan
ISRO is working towards an orbital crewed spacecraft that can operate for seven days in a low Earth orbit. The spacecraft, called Gaganyaan (गगनयान), will be the basis of the Indian Human Spaceflight Programme. The spacecraft is being developed to carry up to three people, and a planned upgraded version will be equipped with a rendezvous and docking capability. In its maiden crewed mission, ISRO's largely autonomous 3-ton spacecraft will orbit the Earth at 400 km in altitude for up to seven days with a two-person crew on board. The crewed mission is planned to be launched on ISRO's GSLV Mk III in 2022.[110]

Space station
India plans to build a space station as a follow-up programme of the Gaganyaan mission. ISRO chairman K. Sivan has said that India will not join the International Space Station program and will instead build a 20 tonne space station on its own.[111][112]

Planetary sciences and astronomy
India's space era dawned when the first two-stage sounding rocket was launched from Thumba in 1963.[citation needed]

There is a national balloon launching facility at Hyderabad jointly supported by TIFR and ISRO. This facility has been extensively used for carrying out research in high energy (i.e., X- and gamma-ray) astronomy, IR astronomy, middle atmospheric trace constituents including CFCs & aerosols, ionization, electric conductivity and electric fields.[113]

The flux of secondary particles and X-ray and gamma-rays of atmospheric origin produced by the interaction of the cosmic rays is very low. This low background, in the presence of which one has to detect the feeble signal from cosmic sources is a major advantage in conducting hard X-ray observations from India. The second advantage is that many bright sources like Cyg X-1, Crab Nebula, Scorpius X-1 and Galactic Centre sources are observable from Hyderabad due to their favourable declination. With these considerations, an X-ray astronomy group was formed at TIFR in 1967 and development of an instrument with an orientable X-ray telescope for hard X-ray observations was undertaken. The first balloon flight with the new instrument was made on 28 April 1968 in which observations of Scorpius X-1 were successfully carried out. In a succession of balloon flights made with this instrument between 1968 and 1974 a number of binary X-ray sources including Cyg X-1 and Her X-1, and the diffuse cosmic X-ray background were studied. Many new and astrophysically important results were obtained from these observations.[114]

ISRO played a role in the discovery of three species of bacteria in the upper stratosphere at an altitude of between 20–40 km. The bacteria, highly resistant to ultra-violet radiation, are not found elsewhere on Earth, leading to speculation on whether they are extraterrestrial in origin.[115] These three bacteria can be considered to be extremophiles. The bacteria were named as Bacillus isronensis in recognition of ISRO's contribution in the balloon experiments, which led to its discovery, Bacillus aryabhata after India's celebrated ancient astronomer Aryabhata and Janibacter hoylei after the distinguished astrophysicist Fred Hoyle.[116]

Astrosat
Main article: Astrosat

Astrosat-1 in deployed configuration
Astrosat is India's first multi wavelength space observatory and full-fledged astronomy satellite. Its observation study includes active galactic nuclei, hot white dwarfs, pulsations of pulsars, binary star systems, supermassive black holes located at the centre of the galaxies, etc.[117]

XPoSat
Main article: X-ray Polarimeter Satellite
The X-ray Polarimeter Satellite (XPoSat) is a planned mission to study polarisation. It is planned to have a mission life of five years and is planned to be launched in 2021.[118] The spacecraft is planned to carry the Polarimeter Instrument in X-rays (POLIX) payload which will study the degree and angle of polarisation of bright astronomical X-ray sources in the energy range 5-30 keV.[119]

Extraterrestrial exploration
Lunar: Chandrayaan-1
Main article: Chandrayaan-1

Rendering of Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft
Chandrayaan-1 was India's first mission to the Moon. The robotic lunar exploration mission included a lunar orbiter and an impactor called the Moon Impact Probe. ISRO launched the spacecraft using a modified version of the PSLV on 22 October 2008 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota. The vehicle was inserted into lunar orbit on 8 November 2008. It carried high-resolution remote sensing equipment for visible, near infrared, and soft and hard X-ray frequencies. During its 312 days operational period (2 years planned), it surveyed the lunar surface to produce a complete map of its chemical characteristics and 3-dimensional topography. The polar regions were of special interest, as they possibly had ice deposits. The spacecraft carried 11 instruments: 5 Indian and 6 from foreign institutes and space agencies (including NASA, ESA, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Brown University and other European and North American institutes/companies), which were carried free of cost. Chandrayaan-1 became the first lunar mission to discover existence of water on the Moon.[120] The Chandrayaan-166 team was awarded the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics SPACE 2009 award,[121] the International Lunar Exploration Working Group's International Co-operation award in 2008,[122] and the National Space Society's 2009 Space Pioneer Award in the science and engineering category.[123][124]

Mars Orbiter Mission (Mangalayaan)
Main article: Mars Orbiter Mission

Artist's rendering of the Mars Orbiter Mission spacecraft, with Mars in the background.
The Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM), informally known as Mangalayaan, was launched into Earth orbit on 5 November 2013 by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and has entered Mars orbit on 24 September 2014.[125] India thus became the first country to enter Mars orbit on its first attempt. It was completed at a record low cost of $74 million.[126]

MOM was placed into Mars orbit on 24 September 2014 at 8:23 am IST. The spacecraft had a launch mass of 1,337 kg (2,948 lb), with 15 kg (33 lb) of five scientific instruments as payload.

The National Space Society awarded the Mars Orbiter Mission team the 2015 Space Pioneer Award in the science and engineering category.[127][128]

Lunar: Chandrayaan-2
Main article: Chandrayaan-2

Vikram lander mounted on top of the Chandrayaan-2 orbiter.
Chandrayaan-2 (Sanskrit: चंद्रयान-२) is India's second mission to the Moon, which includes an orbiter and lander-rover module. Chandrayaan-2 was launched on a Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark III (GSLV-MkIII) on July 22, 2019 at 2:43 pm IST.[129][130] It is the first mission meant to explore the little-explored Lunar south pole.[131] The main objective of the Chandrayaan-2 mission is to demonstrate ISRO's ability to soft-land on the lunar surface and operate a robotic rover on the surface. Some of its scientific aims are to conduct studies of lunar topography, mineralogy, elemental abundance, the lunar exosphere, and signatures of hydroxyl and water ice.[132]

The Vikram lander, carrying the Pragyan rover, was scheduled to land on the near side of the Moon, in a south polar region at a latitude of about 70° south at approximately 1:50 am on 7 September 2019. However, at about 1:52 am IST, the lander deviated from its intended trajectory at around 2.1 kilometres (1.3 mi) from landing and communication was lost.[133]

Future projects
ISRO plans to launch a number of Earth observation satellites in the near future. It will also undertake the development of new launch vehicles, a crewed orbital vehicle (Gaganyaan), a space station[134] and probes to Mars, Venus and near-Earth objects.

Forthcoming satellites
Satellite name	Notes
GSAT-20	It is expected to be launched in 2019.
CARTOSAT-3	It is expected to be launched in 2019.It is a follow up to CARTOSAT-2
IRNSS-1J	It is expected to be launched in 2019.
GSAT-30	It is expected to be launched from French arianespace in 2019.
GISAT 1	Geospatial imagery to facilitate continuous observation of Indian sub-continent, quick monitoring of natural hazards and disaster.
NISAR	NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) is a joint project between NASA and ISRO to co-develop and launch a dual frequency synthetic aperture radar satellite to be used for remote sensing. It is notable for being the first dual band radar imaging satellite.
DISHA	Disturbed and quite-type Ionosphere System at High Altitude (DISHA) satellite constellation with two satellites in 450 km LEO is planned for 2024-25.[135][136]
Future extraterrestrial exploration
ISRO plans to follow up with Mars Orbiter Mission 2, and is assessing missions to Venus, the Sun, and near-Earth objects such as asteroids and comets.

Destination	Craft name	Launch vehicle	Year
Sun	Aditya-L1	PSLV-XL	2020
Venus	Shukrayaan-1
GSLV III	2023
Mars	Mars Orbiter Mission 2
(Mangalyaan 2)	GSLV III	2024
Jupiter	TBD		
Interstellar space	Exoworlds	TBD	2028[137]

Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark III is intended as a launch vehicle for crewed missions under the Indian Human Spaceflight Programme announced in Prime Minister Modi's 2018 Independence Day speech.[138]
Mangalyaan 2
Main article: Mars Orbiter Mission 2
The next Mars mission, Mars Orbiter Mission 2, also called Mangalyaan 2 (Sanskrit: मंगलयान-२), will be launched in 2024.[135] It will have a less elliptical orbit around Mars and could weigh seven times more than the first mission.[139] This orbiter mission will facilitate the community to address several open science problems. The science payload of the planned satellite is estimated at no more than 100 kg (220 lb).

Aditya-L1
Main article: Aditya-L1
ISRO plans to carry out a mission to the Sun by the year 2020.[140][141] The probe is named Aditya-1 (Sanskrit: आदित्य L१) and will have a mass of about 400 kg (880 lb).[142] It is the first Indian space-based solar coronagraph to study the corona in visible and near-IR bands. Launch of the Aditya mission was planned during the heightened solar activity period in 2012, but was postponed to 2021 due to the extensive work involved in the fabrication, and other technical aspects. The main objective of the mission is to study coronal mass ejections (CMEs), their properties (the structure and evolution of their magnetic fields for example), and consequently constrain parameters that affect space weather.

Venus and Jupiter
ISRO is in the process of conducting conceptual studies to send a spacecraft to Jupiter or Venus.

Jupiter
The ideal launch window to send a spacecraft to Jupiter occurs every 33 months. If the mission to Jupiter is launched, a flyby of Venus would be required.[143]

Shukrayaan 1
ISRO is assessing an orbiter mission to Venus called Shukrayaan-1, that could launch as early as 2023 to study its atmosphere.[144] Some budget has been allocated to perform preliminary studies as part of 2017–18 Indian budget under Space Sciences,[145][146][147] and solicitations for potential instruments were requested in 2017[148] and in 2018.

Lunar missions
Main article: Chandrayaan-3
Besides the Chandrayaan-2 lunar mission, ISRO is studying the potential for a joint lunar mission with Japan's Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) to explore the polar regions of the Moon for water as Chandrayaan-3,[149] that would be launched by 2024.[150]

Space transportation
Small Satellite Launch Vehicle
Main article: Small Satellite Launch Vehicle
Small Satellite Launch Vehicle or SSLV is in development for the commercial launch of small satellites with a payload of 500 kg to low Earth orbit. SSLV would be a four-staged vehicle with three solid propellant-based stages and a Velocity Trimming Module. The maiden flight is expected in July 2019 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre.[151][152]

Reusable Launch Vehicle-Technology Demonstrator (RLV-TD)
Main article: RLV-TD
As a first step towards realizing a two-stage-to-orbit (TSTO) fully re-usable launch vehicle, a series of technology demonstration missions have been conceived. For this purpose, the winged Reusable Launch Vehicle Technology Demonstrator (RLV-TD) has been configured. The RLV-TD is acting as a flying testbed to evaluate various technologies such as hypersonic flight, autonomous landing, powered cruise flight, and hypersonic flight using air-breathing propulsion.

First in the series of demonstration trials was the Hypersonic Flight Experiment (HEX). ISRO launched the prototype's test flight from the Sriharikota spaceport in February 2016. The prototype, called RLV-TD, weighs around 1.5 tonnes and flew up to a height of 70 km.[153] The test flight, known as HEX, was completed on 23 May 2016. A scaled up version of could serve as fly-back booster stage for their winged TSTO concept.[154]

Unified Launch Vehicle
Main article: Unified Launch Vehicle
The Unified Launch Vehicle (ULV) is a launch vehicle in development by ISRO. The project's core objective is to design a modular architecture that will enable the replacement of the PSLV, GSLV Mk II and GSLV Mk III with a single family of launchers. The SCE-200 engine can even be clustered for heavy launch configuration. The ULV will be able to launch 6000 kg to 10,000 kg of payload into GTO. This will mark the renunciation of the liquid stage with Vikas engine, which uses toxic UDMH and N2O4.

Future Super-heavy Lift Launch Vehicle
ISRO is conducting preliminary research for the development of a Super heavy-lift launch vehicle which is planned to have a lifting capacity of over 50-60 tonnes into an unspecified orbit.[155]

Space Technology Incubation Centre
ISRO has opened Space Technology Incubation Centres (S-TIC) at premier technical universities in India which will incubate startups to build applications and products in tandem with the industry and would be used for future space missions. The S-TIC will bring the industry, academia and ISRO under one umbrella to contribute towards research and development (R&D) initiatives relevant to the Indian Space Programme. S-TICs are at the National Institute of Technology, Agartala serving for east region, National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar for the north region, and the National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli for the south region of India.[50]

Applications
Telecommunication
India uses its satellite communication network – one of the largest in the world – for applications such as land management, water resources management, natural disaster forecasting, radio networking, weather forecasting, meteorological imaging and computer communication.[156] Business, administrative services, and schemes such as the National Informatics Centre (NIC) are direct beneficiaries of applied satellite technology.[157] Dinshaw Mistry, on the subject of practical applications of the Indian space program, writes:

"The INSAT-2 satellites also provide telephone links to remote areas; data transmission for organisations such as the National Stock Exchange; mobile satellite service communications for private operators, railways, and road transport; and broadcast satellite services, used by India's state-owned television agency as well as commercial television channels. India's EDUSAT (Educational Satellite), launched aboard the GSLV in 2004, was intended for adult literacy and distance learning applications in rural areas. It augmented and would eventually replace such capabilities already provided by INSAT-3B."
Resource management
The IRS satellites have found applications with the Indian Natural Resource Management program, with Regional Remote Sensing Service Centres in five Indian cities, and with Remote Sensing Application Centres in twenty Indian states that use IRS images for economic development applications. These include environmental monitoring, analysing soil erosion and the impact of soil conservation measures, forestry management, determining land cover for wildlife sanctuaries, delineating groundwater potential zones, flood inundation mapping, drought monitoring, estimating crop acreage and deriving agricultural production estimates, fisheries monitoring, mining and geological applications such as surveying metal and mineral deposits, and urban planning.

Military
Integrated Space Cell, under the Integrated Defense Staff headquarters of the Indian Ministry of Defense,[158] has been set up to utilize more effectively the country's space-based assets for military purposes and to look into threats to these assets.[159][160] This command will leverage space technology including satellites. Unlike an aerospace command, where the air force controls most of its activities, the Integrated Space Cell envisages cooperation and coordination between the three services as well as civilian agencies dealing with space.[158] With 14 satellites, including GSAT-7A for the exclusive military use and the rest as dual use satellites, India has the fourth largest number of satellites active in the sky which includes satellites for the exclusive use of Indian Air Force and Indian Navy respectively.[161] GSAT-7A, an advanced military communications satellite exclusively for the Indian Air Force,[162] is similar to Indian navy's GSAT-7, and GSAT-7A will enhance Network-centric warfare capabilities of the Indian Air Force by interlinking different ground radar stations, ground airbase and Airborne early warning and control (AWACS) aircraft such as Beriev A-50 Phalcon and DRDO AEW&CS.[162][163] GSAT-7A will also be used by Indian Army's Aviation Corps for its helicopters and UAV's operations.[162][163] In 2013, ISRO launched GSAT-7 for the exclusive use of the Indian Navy to monitor the Indian Ocean Region (IOR) with the satellite's 2,000 nautical mile 'footprint' and real-time input capabilities to Indian warships, submarines and maritime aircraft.[161] To boost the network-centric operations of the IAF, ISRO launched GSAT-7A on 19 December 2018.[164][161] The RISAT series of radar-imaging earth observation satellites is also meant for Military use.[165] ISRO launched EMISAT on April 1, 2019. EMISAT is a electronic intelligence (ELINT) satellite which has a weight of 436-kg. It will help improve the situational awareness of the Indian Armed Forces by providing information and location of hostile radars.[166]

India's satellites and satellite launch vehicles have had military spin-offs. While India's 93–124-mile (150–200-kilometre) range Prithvi missile is not derived from the Indian space programme, the intermediate range Agni missile is drawn from the Indian space programme's SLV-3. In its early years, when headed by Vikram Sarabhai and Satish Dhawan, ISRO opposed military applications for its dual-use projects such as the SLV-3. Eventually, the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) based missile programme borrowed human resources and technology from ISRO. Missile scientist A.P.J. Abdul Kalam (elected president of India in 2002), who had headed the SLV-3 project at ISRO, moved to DRDO to direct India's missile programme. About a dozen scientists accompanied Kalam from ISRO to DRDO, where he designed the Agni missile using the SLV-3's solid fuel first stage and a liquid-fuel (Prithvi-missile-derived) second stage. The IRS and INSAT satellites were primarily intended and used for civilian-economic applications, but they also offered military spin-offs. In 1996 New Delhi's Ministry of Defence temporarily blocked the use of IRS-1C by India's environmental and agricultural ministries to monitor ballistic missiles near India's borders. In 1997 the Indian Air Force's "Airpower Doctrine" aspired to use space assets for surveillance and battle management.[167]

Academic
Institutions like the Indira Gandhi National Open University and the Indian Institutes of Technology use satellites for scholarly applications.[168] Between 1975 and 1976, India conducted its largest sociological programme using space technology, reaching 2400 villages through video programming in local languages aimed at educational development via ATS-6 technology developed by NASA.[169] This experiment—named Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE)—conducted large scale video broadcasts resulting in significant improvement in rural education.[169] Education could reach far remote rural places with the help of above programs.

Telemedicine
ISRO has applied its technology for telemedicine, directly connecting patients in rural areas to medical professionals in urban locations via satellites.[168] Since high-quality healthcare is not universally available in some of the remote areas of India, the patients in remote areas are diagnosed and analysed by doctors in urban centers in real time via video conferencing.[168] The patient is then advised medicine and treatment.[168] The patient is then treated by the staff at one of the 'super-specialty hospitals' under instructions from the doctor.[168] Mobile telemedicine vans are also deployed to visit locations in far-flung areas and provide diagnosis and support to patients.[168]

Biodiversity Information System
ISRO has also helped implement India's Biodiversity Information System, completed in October 2002.[170] Nirupa Sen details the program: "Based on intensive field sampling and mapping using satellite remote sensing and geospatial modeling tools, maps have been made of vegetation cover on a 1: 250,000 scale. This has been put together in a web-enabled database that links gene-level information of plant species with spatial information in a BIOSPEC database of the ecological hot spot regions, namely northeastern India, Western Ghats, Western Himalayas and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. This has been made possible with collaboration between the Department of Biotechnology and ISRO."[170]

Cartography
The Indian IRS-P5 (CARTOSAT-1) was equipped with high-resolution panchromatic equipment to enable it for cartographic purposes.[33] IRS-P5 (CARTOSAT-1) was followed by a more advanced model named IRS-P6 developed also for agricultural applications.[33] The CARTOSAT-2 project, equipped with single panchromatic camera that supported scene-specific on-spot images, succeeded the CARTOSAT-1 project.[171]

International cooperations
ISRO has had international cooperations since its inception. Some instances are listed below:

Establishment of TERLS, conduct of SITE & STEP, launches of Aryabhata, Bhaskara, APPLE, IRS-IA and IRS-IB/ satellites, crewed space mission, etc.
ISRO operates LUT/MCC under the international COSPAS/SARSAT Programme for Search and Rescue.
India has established a Centre for Space Science and Technology Education in Asia and the Pacific (CSSTE-AP) that is sponsored by the United Nations.
India hosted the Second UN-ESCAP Ministerial Conference on Space Applications for Sustainable Development in Asia and the Pacific in November 1999.
India is a member of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, Cospas-Sarsat, International Astronautical Federation, Committee on Space Research (COSPAR), Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee (IADC), International Space University, and the Committee on Earth Observation Satellite (CEOS).[172]
Chandrayaan-1 carried scientific payloads from NASA, ESA, Bulgarian Space Agency, and other institutions/companies in North America and Europe.
The United States government on 24 January 2011, removed several Indian government agencies, including ISRO, from the so-called Entity List, in an effort to drive hi-tech trade and forge closer strategic ties with India.[173]
ISRO carries out joint operations with foreign space agencies, such as the Indo-French Megha-Tropiques Mission.[172]
The planned 2020 launch of a NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) satellite mission to make global measurements of the causes and consequences of land surface changes. A planned pathway for future joint missions with NASA to explore Mars.[174]
Contributing to planned BRICS virtual constellation for remote sensing.[175][176]
Antrix Corporation, the commercial and marketing arm of ISRO, handles both domestic and foreign deals.[177]

Formal cooperative arrangements in the form of memoranda of understanding or framework agreements have been signed with the following countries[178]

Argentina Argentina
Australia Australia
Brazil Brazil
Brunei Brunei
Bulgaria Bulgaria
Canada Canada
Chile Chile
China China
Egypt Egypt
France France
Germany Germany
Hungary Hungary
Indonesia Indonesia
Israel Israel
Italy Italy
Japan Japan
Kazakhstan Kazakhstan
Malaysia Malaysia
Mauritius Mauritius
Mongolia Mongolia
Myanmar Myanmar
Netherlands Netherlands
Norway Norway
Peru Peru
Russia Russia
Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia
South Korea South Korea
Spain Spain
Sweden Sweden
Syria Syria
Thailand Thailand
Ukraine Ukraine
United Arab Emirates United Arab Emirates
United Kingdom United Kingdom
United States United States
Venezuela Venezuela
The following foreign organisations also have signed various framework agreements with ISRO:

European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF)
EUMETSAT (European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites)
European Space Agency
In the 39th Scientific Assembly of Committee on Space Research held in Mysore, ISRO chairman K. Radhakrishnan called upon international synergy in space missions in view of their prohibitive cost. He also mentioned that ISRO is gearing up to meet the growing demand of service providers and security agencies in a cost effective manner.[179]

ISRO satellites launched by foreign agencies
Several ISRO satellites have been launched by foreign space agencies (of Europe, USSR / Russia, and United States). The details (as of December 2016) are given in the tables below.

51015202530Communication satellitesEarth observation satellitesExperimental satellitesOther
  Ariane
  Interkosmos
  Vostok
  Molniya
  Delta
  Space Shuttle
Launch vehicle family	No. of ISRO satellites launched
Communication satellites	Earth observation satellites	Experimental satellites	Other	Total
Europe
Ariane	20	0	1	0	21
USSR / Russia
Interkosmos	0	2	1	0	3
Vostok	0	2	0	0	2
Molniya	0	1	0	0	1
USA
Delta	2	0	0	0	2
Space Shuttle	1	0	0	0	1
Total	23	5	2	0	30
Those ISRO satellites that had a launch mass of 3000 kg or more, and were launched by foreign agencies, are listed in the table below.

No.	Satellite's name	Launch vehicle	Launch agency	Country / region of launch agency	Launch date	Launch mass	Power	Orbit type	Mission life	Other information	Reference(s)
1.	INSAT-4A	Ariane5-V169	Arianespace	Europe	22 December 2005	3081 kg with propellants
(1386.55 kg dry mass)	5922 W	Geosynchronous	12 years	For communication.	[180]
2.	INSAT-4B	Ariane 5 ECA	Arianespace	Europe	12 March 2007	3,025 kg with propellants	5859 W	Geosynchronous	12 years	Communication satellite	[181]
3.	GSAT-8	Ariane-5 VA-202	Arianespace	Europe	21 May 2011	3,093 kg with propellants (1,426 kg dry mass)	6242 W	Geosynchronous	More than 12 years	Communication satellite	[182]
4.	GSAT-10	Ariane-5 VA-209	Arianespace	Europe	29 September 2010	3,400 kg with propellants (1,498 kg dry mass)	6474 W	Geosynchronous	15 years	Communication satellite	[183]
5.	GSAT-16	Ariane-5 VA-221	Arianespace	Europe	7 December 2014	3,181.6 kg with propellants	6000 W	Geosynchronous	12 years	Communication satellite, carries 48 transponders, the most in any ISRO communication satellite so far.	[184]
6.	GSAT-15	Ariane-5 VA-227	Arianespace	Europe	11 November 2015	3,164 kg with propellants	6000 W	Geosynchronous	12 years	Communication satellite, carries 24 transponders.	[185]
7.	GSAT-18	Ariane-5 VA-231	Arianespace	Europe	6 October 2016	3,404 kg	6474 W	Geosynchronous	15 years	Communication satellite, carries 48 transponders.	[186]
8.	GSAT-17	Ariane-5 VA-238	Arianespace	Europe	28 June 2017	3,477 kg	6474 W	Geosynchronous	15 years	Communication satellite, carries 42 transponders.	[187]
9.	GSAT-11	Ariane-5 VA-246	Arianespace	Europe	5 December 2018	5,854 kg	13.4KW	Geosynchronous	15 years	Communication satellite	[188]
Statistics
Last updated: 26 July 2019[189]

Total number of foreign satellites launched by ISRO : 297 (33 countries)
Spacecraft missions: 105
Launch missions: 75
Student satellites: 10
Re-entry missions: 2
Controversies
S-band spectrum scam
In India, electromagnetic spectrum, being a scarce resource for wireless communication, is auctioned by the Government of India to telecom companies for use. As an example of its value, in 2010, 20 MHz of 3G spectrum was auctioned for ₹677 billion (US$9.8 billion). This part of the spectrum is allocated for terrestrial communication (cell phones). However, in January 2005, Antrix Corporation (commercial arm of ISRO) signed an agreement with Devas Multimedia (a private company formed by former ISRO employees and venture capitalists from the US) for lease of S band transponders (amounting to 70 MHz of spectrum) on two ISRO satellites (GSAT 6 and GSAT 6A) for a price of ₹14 billion (US$200 million), to be paid over a period of 12 years. The spectrum used in these satellites (2500 MHz and above) is allocated by the International Telecommunication Union specifically for satellite-based communication in India. Hypothetically, if the spectrum allocation is changed for utilisation for terrestrial transmission and if this 70 MHz of spectrum were sold at the 2010 auction price of the 3G spectrum, its value would have been over ₹2,000 billion (US$29 billion). This was a hypothetical situation. However, the Comptroller and Auditor General of India considered this hypothetical situation and estimated the difference between the prices as a loss to the Indian Government.[190][191]

There were lapses on implementing Government of India procedures. Antrix/ISRO had allocated the capacity of the above two satellites to Devas Multimedia on an exclusive basis, while rules said it should always be non-exclusive. The Cabinet was misinformed in November 2005 that several service providers were interested in using satellite capacity, while the Devas deal was already signed. Also, the Space Commission was kept in the dark while taking approval for the second satellite (its cost was diluted so that Cabinet approval was not needed). ISRO committed to spending ₹7.66 billion (US$110 million) of public money on building, launching, and operating two satellites that were leased out for Devas.

In late 2009, some ISRO insiders exposed information about the Devas-Antrix deal,[191][192] and the ensuing investigations resulted in the deal being annulled. G. Madhavan Nair (ISRO Chairperson when the agreement was signed) was barred from holding any post under the Department of Space. Some former scientists were found guilty of "acts of commission" or "acts of omission". Devas and Deutsche Telekom demanded US$2 billion and US$1 billion, respectively, in damages.[193] Government of India's Department of Revenue and Ministry of Corporate Affairs initiated an inquiry into Devas shareholding.

The Central Bureau of Investigation concluded investigations into the Antrix-Devas scam and registered a case against the accused in the Antrix-Devas deal under Section 120-B, besides Section 420 of IPC and Section 13(2) read with 13(1)(d) of PC Act, 1988 on 18 March 2015 against the then Executive Director of Antrix Corporation, two officials of USA-based company, Bangalore based private multimedia company, and other unknown officials of Antrix Corporation or Department of Space.[194][195]

Devas Multimedia started arbitration proceedings against Antrix in June 2011. In September 2015, the International Court of Arbitration of the International Chamber of Commerce ruled in favour of Devas, and directed Antrix to pay US$672 million (Rs 44.35 billion) in damages to Devas.[196] Antrix opposed the Devas plea for tribunal award in the Delhi High Court.[197][needs update]

See also
	Spaceflight portal
AVATAR Reusable Launch Vehicle, an undeveloped concept
Chairman of the Indian Space Research Organisation
Comparison of Asian national space programs
Department of Space, administers the Indian space program
Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology
List of foreign satellites launched by India
List of government space agencies
List of Indian satellites
List of ISRO missions
Swami Vivekananda Planetarium
Telecommunications in India
Timeline of Solar System exploration
Deep Ocean mission
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Further reading
The Economics of India's Space Programme, by U. Sankar, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2007, ISBN 978-0-19-568345-5
The Indian Space Programme, by Gurbir Singh, Astrotalkuk Publications, ISBN 978-0956933737
Reach For the Stars: The Evolution of India's Rocket Programme, by Gopal Raj, ISBN 978-0670899500
From Fishing Hamlet to Red Planet: India's Space Journey, by ISRO, ISBN 978-9351776895
Brief History Of Rocketry In ISRO, by P V Manoranjan Rao and P Radhakrishnan, ISBN 978-8173717642
India’s Rise as a Space Power, by U R Rao, ISBN 978-9382993483
External links
	Wikimedia Commons has media related to Indian Space Research Organisation.
ISRO official website
"Official website of the Department of Space of the Government of India". dos.gov.in.
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India Indian space programme
Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)
Organisations	
Department of Space (DoS)Antrix CorporationIndian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST)Indian Institute of Remote Sensing (IIRS)Laboratory for Electro-Optics Systems (LEOS)National Atmospheric Research Laboratory (NARL)Physical Research Laboratory (PRL)Development and Educational Communication Unit (DECU)
Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)
Programmes	
BhaskaraGAGANGSATINSATIRNSSIRS CartosatRISATRohiniSROSSChandrayaanHuman Spaceflight Programme
Satellites	
APPLEAryabhataHAMSATIMS-1Megha-TropiquesNISARSARALSouth Asia SatelliteSRESRE IIKalpana-1CARE
Space observatories	
Aditya-L1AstrosatAstroSat-2
Lunar and
planetary spacecraft	
Chandrayaan-1Chandrayaan-2Chandrayaan-3 (proposed)Mars Orbiter MissionMars Orbiter Mission 2Shukrayaan-1 (proposed)
Crewed spacecraft	
Gaganyaan (Under development)
Rockets	
Engines CE-7.5CE-20VikasOrbital SLVASLVPSLVGSLVGSLV Mark IIISuborbital RohiniATVConcepts ULVUnder development RLV Technology Demonstration Programme RLV-TDHEXSSLVSCE-200
Facilities	
Indian Deep Space Network (IDSN)ISRO Satellite Centre (ISAC)ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network (ISTRAC)Master Control Facility (MCF)Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC)Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS)ISRO Satellite Integration and Testing Establishment (ISITE)Vikram Sarabhai Space Center (VSSC)Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC)ISRO Propulsion ComplexHuman Space Flight Centre (HSFC)
Related	
SAGA-220 (supercomputer)RESPOND
List of Indian satellitesList of Satish Dhawan Space Centre launchesList of ISRO missions
vte
Indian spacecraft
List of Indian satellitesList of Satish Dhawan Space Centre launchesList of ISRO missions
Satellites	
Communication	
GSAT 123 (EDUSAT)45P66A77A89 (South Asia Satellite)1011121415161718192931HAMSATINSAT 1A1B1C1D2A2B2C2D2DT2E3A3B3C3D3DR3DS3E4A4B4C4CR4E4F4GPlanned: GSAT 20222324
Earth observation	
Bhaskara IIICartosat 122A2B2C2D2E2FEMISATHySISIMS-1IRS 1A1B1C1D1EP1P2P3Megha-TropiquesMicrosat Microsat-ROceansat 12Resourcesat 12RISAT 12Rohini RS-D1RS-D2SARALSCATSAT-1Technology Experiment Satellite (TESS)Planned: Cartosat-3NISARGISATOceansat-3Resourcesat-3RISAT-1A
Experimental	
APPLEAryabhataRohini RS-1Rohini Technology Payload (RTP)
Navigation	
IRNSS 1A1B1C1D1E1F1G1I
Student satellites	
ANUSATJugnuSRMSATStudSat StudSat-2YouthSatPratham
Aryabhata Satellite
Space probes	
Scientific	
SROSS ABCC2
Astronomical	
AstrosatAditya-L1 (planned)XPoSat (planned)
Lunar programme	
Chandrayaan-1 Moon Impact ProbeChandrayaan-2 VikramPragyan
Inter-planetary	
Mars Orbiter MissionMars Orbiter Mission 2 (planned)Shukrayaan-1 (planned)
Human spaceflight	
Indian human spaceflight programme SRE-1SRE-IISRE-IIIGaganyaan CARE
Future spacecraft in italics.
vte
Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) facilities
Research and
construction facilities	
Vikram Sarabhai Space CentreDevelopment and Educational Communication UnitISRO Satellite CentreLiquid Propulsion Systems CentreISRO Propulsion ComplexSpace Applications CentreISRO Inertial Systems UnitSemi-Conductor LaboratoryNorth-Eastern Space Applications CentreLaboratory for Electro-Optics SystemsHuman Space Flight Centre
Tracking and
control facilities	
Indian Deep Space NetworkISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network (ISTRAC)Indian Space Science Data CentreMaster Control FacilityNational Remote Sensing Centre
Launch centres	
Satish Dhawan Space Centre FLPSLPThumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station
Associated
organisations	
Institutions	
National Atmospheric Research LaboratoryIndian Institute of AstrophysicsPhysical Research LaboratoryInter-University Centre for Astronomy and AstrophysicsIndian Institute of Space Science and TechnologyTata Institute of Fundamental ResearchNational Natural Resources Management SystemRaman Research Institute
Government organisations	
Department of SpaceDefence Research and Development Organisation
vte
Public-sector space agencies
Authority control Edit this at Wikidata	
GND: 2078014-XISNI: 0000 0004 0500 9274LCCN: n78092155VIAF: 133195349WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 133195349
Categories: Indian Space Research OrganisationGovernment agencies established in 1969Rocket engine manufacturers of IndiaGovernment agencies of IndiaSpace programme of India1969 establishments in IndiaSpace agencies
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NASA
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
For other uses, see NASA (disambiguation).
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
NASA seal.svg
Seal
NASA logo.svg
Emblem
Flag of the United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration.svg
Flag
Agency overview
Formed	July 29, 1958; 61 years ago
Preceding agency	
NACA (1915–1958)[1]
Jurisdiction	US Federal Government
Headquarters	Two Independence Square, Washington, D.C.,
United States
38°52′59″N 77°0′59″WCoordinates: 38°52′59″N 77°0′59″W
Motto	For the Benefit of All[2]
Employees	17,219 (2019)[3]
Annual budget	Increase US$21.5 billion (2019)[4]
Agency executives	
Jim Bridenstine, Administrator
James Morhard, Deputy Administrator
Jeff DeWit, Chief Financial Officer
Website	NASA.gov
Part of a series on the
Space policy of the United States
Greater coat of arms of the United States.svg
Human spaceflight programs[show]
Robotic spaceflight programs[show]
Launch vehicles[show]
Astronaut corps[show]
vte
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA, /ˈnæsə/) is an independent agency of the United States Federal Government responsible for the civilian space program, as well as aeronautics and aerospace research.[note 1]

NASA was established in 1958, succeeding the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). The new agency was to have a distinctly civilian orientation, encouraging peaceful applications in space science.[7][8][9] Since its establishment, most US space exploration efforts have been led by NASA, including the Apollo Moon landing missions, the Skylab space station, and later the Space Shuttle. NASA is supporting the International Space Station and is overseeing the development of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle, the Space Launch System and Commercial Crew vehicles. The agency is also responsible for the Launch Services Program which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches.

NASA science is focused on better understanding Earth through the Earth Observing System;[10] advancing heliophysics through the efforts of the Science Mission Directorate's Heliophysics Research Program;[11] exploring bodies throughout the Solar System with advanced robotic spacecraft missions such as New Horizons;[12] and researching astrophysics topics, such as the Big Bang, through the Great Observatories and associated programs.[13]


Contents
1	Creation
2	Leadership
3	Space flight programs
3.1	Crewed programs
3.1.1	X-15 rocket plane (1959–1968)
3.1.2	Project Mercury (1958–1963)
3.1.3	Project Gemini (1961–1966)
3.1.4	Apollo program (1961–1972)
3.1.5	Skylab (1965–1979)
3.1.6	Apollo–Soyuz Test Project (1972–1975)
3.1.7	Space Shuttle program (1972–2011)
3.1.8	International Space Station (1993–present)
3.1.8.1	Commercial programs (2006–present)
3.1.9	Artemis program (2017–present)
3.2	Uncrewed programs
3.3	Activities (2010–2017)
3.4	Recent and planned activities
4	NASA Advisory Council
5	Directives
5.1	NASA Authorization Act of 2017
5.2	Space Policy Directive 1
6	Research
6.1	Climate and other research
7	Facilities
8	Budget
9	Environmental impact
10	Gallery
10.1	Observations
10.2	Spacecraft
10.3	Planned spacecraft
10.4	Concepts
11	Examples of missions by target
12	See also
13	Notes
14	References
15	External links
15.1	General
15.2	Further reading
Creation
Main article: Creation of NASA

William H. Pickering, (center) JPL Director, President John F. Kennedy, (right). NASA Administrator James E. Webb (background) discussing the Mariner program, with a model presented.
From 1946, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) had been experimenting with rocket planes such as the supersonic Bell X-1.[14] In the early 1950s, there was a challenge to launch an artificial satellite for the International Geophysical Year (1957–58), resulting in the American Project Vanguard among others. After the Soviet launch of the world's first artificial satellite (Sputnik 1) on October 4, 1957, the attention of the United States turned toward its own fledgling space efforts. The US Congress, alarmed by the perceived threat to national security and technological leadership (known as the "Sputnik crisis"), urged immediate and swift action; President Dwight D. Eisenhower and his advisers counseled more deliberate measures. On January 12, 1958, NACA organized a "Special Committee on Space Technology", headed by Guyford Stever.[9] On January 14, 1958, NACA Director Hugh Dryden published "A National Research Program for Space Technology" stating:[15]

File:NASA 60th- How It All Began.webm
A short documentary about the beginnings of NASA
It is of great urgency and importance to our country both from consideration of our prestige as a nation as well as military necessity that this challenge [Sputnik] be met by an energetic program of research and development for the conquest of space ... It is accordingly proposed that the scientific research be the responsibility of a national civilian agency ... NACA is capable, by rapid extension and expansion of its effort, of providing leadership in space technology.[15]

While this new federal agency would conduct all non-military space activity, the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) was created in February 1958 to develop space technology for military application.[16]

On July 29, 1958, Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act, establishing NASA. When it began operations on October 1, 1958, NASA absorbed the 43-year-old NACA intact; its 8,000 employees, an annual budget of US$100 million, three major research laboratories (Langley Aeronautical Laboratory, Ames Aeronautical Laboratory, and Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory) and two small test facilities.[17] A NASA seal was approved by President Eisenhower in 1959.[18] Elements of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency and the United States Naval Research Laboratory were incorporated into NASA. A significant contributor to NASA's entry into the Space Race with the Soviet Union was the technology from the German rocket program led by Wernher von Braun, who was now working for the Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA), which in turn incorporated the technology of American scientist Robert Goddard's earlier works.[19] Earlier research efforts within the US Air Force[17] and many of ARPA's early space programs were also transferred to NASA.[20] In December 1958, NASA gained control of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, a contractor facility operated by the California Institute of Technology.[17]

Leadership
Main article: List of Administrators and Deputy Administrators of NASA

Jim Bridenstine official NASA portrait, April 26, 2018 at NASA Headquarters, Washington D.C.
The agency's leader, NASA's administrator, is nominated by the President of the United States subject to approval of the US Senate, and reports to him or her and serves as senior space science advisor. Though space exploration is ostensibly non-partisan, the appointee usually is associated with the President's political party (Democratic or Republican), and a new administrator is usually chosen when the Presidency changes parties. The only exceptions to this have been:

Democrat Thomas O. Paine, acting administrator under Democrat Lyndon B. Johnson, stayed on while Republican Richard Nixon tried but failed to get one of his own choices to accept the job. Paine was confirmed by the Senate in March 1969 and served through September 1970.[21]
Republican James C. Fletcher, appointed by Nixon and confirmed in April 1971, stayed through May 1977 into the term of Democrat Jimmy Carter.
Daniel Goldin was appointed by Republican George H. W. Bush and stayed through the entire administration of Democrat Bill Clinton.
Robert M. Lightfoot, Jr., associate administrator under Democrat Barack Obama, was kept on as acting administrator by Republican Donald Trump until Trump's own choice Jim Bridenstine, was confirmed in April 2018.[22] Though the agency is independent, the survival or discontinuation of projects can depend directly on the will of the President.[23]
The first administrator was Dr. T. Keith Glennan appointed by Republican President Dwight D. Eisenhower. During his term he brought together the disparate projects in American space development research.[24]

The second administrator, James E. Webb (1961–1968), appointed by President John F. Kennedy, was a Democrat who first publicly served under President Harry S. Truman. In order to implement the Apollo program to achieve Kennedy's Moon landing goal by the end of the 1960s, Webb directed major management restructuring and facility expansion, establishing the Houston Manned Spacecraft (Johnson) Center and the Florida Launch Operations (Kennedy) Center. Capitalizing on Kennedy's legacy, President Lyndon Johnson kept continuity with the Apollo program by keeping Webb on when he succeeded Kennedy in November 1963. But Webb resigned in October 1968 before Apollo achieved its goal, and Republican President Richard M. Nixon replaced Webb with Republican Thomas O. Paine.


Organizational structure of NASA (2015)
James Fletcher was responsible for early planning of the Space Shuttle program during his first term as administrator under President Nixon. He was appointed for a second term as administrator from May 1986 through April 1989 by President Ronald Reagan to help the agency recover from the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster.

Former astronaut Charles Bolden served as NASA's twelfth administrator from July 2009 to January 20, 2017.[25] Bolden is one of three former astronauts who became NASA administrators, along with Richard H. Truly (served 1989–1992) and Frederick D. Gregory (acting, 2005).

The agency's administration is located at NASA Headquarters in Washington, DC and provides overall guidance and direction.[26] Except under exceptional circumstances, NASA civil service employees are required to be citizens of the United States.[27]

Space flight programs
Main article: List of NASA missions

At launch control for the May 28, 1964, Saturn I SA-6 launch. Wernher von Braun is at center.
File:NASA 60th- Humans in Space.webm
A documentary about spaceflight in NASA
NASA has conducted many manned and unmanned spaceflight programs throughout its history. Unmanned programs launched the first American artificial satellites into Earth orbit for scientific and communications purposes, and sent scientific probes to explore the planets of the solar system, starting with Venus and Mars, and including "grand tours" of the outer planets. Manned programs sent the first Americans into low Earth orbit (LEO), won the Space Race with the Soviet Union by landing twelve men on the Moon from 1969 to 1972 in the Apollo program, developed a semi-reusable LEO Space Shuttle, and developed LEO space station capability by itself and with the cooperation of several other nations including post-Soviet Russia. Some missions include both manned and unmanned aspects, such as the Galileo probe, which was deployed by astronauts in Earth orbit before being sent unmanned to Jupiter.

Crewed programs
The experimental rocket-powered aircraft programs started by NACA were extended by NASA as support for manned spaceflight. This was followed by a one-man space capsule program, and in turn by a two-man capsule program. Reacting to loss of national prestige and security fears caused by early leads in space exploration by the Soviet Union, in 1961 President John F. Kennedy proposed the ambitious goal "of landing a man on the Moon by the end of [the 1960s], and returning him safely to the Earth." This goal was met in 1969 by the Apollo program, and NASA planned even more ambitious activities leading to a manned mission to Mars. However, reduction of the perceived threat and changing political priorities almost immediately caused the termination of most of these plans. NASA turned its attention to an Apollo-derived temporary space laboratory, and a semi-reusable Earth orbital shuttle. In the 1990s, funding was approved for NASA to develop a permanent Earth orbital space station in cooperation with the international community, which now included the former rival, post-Soviet Russia. To date, NASA has launched a total of 166 manned space missions on rockets, and thirteen X-15 rocket flights above the USAF definition of spaceflight altitude, 260,000 feet (80 km).[28]

X-15 rocket plane (1959–1968)
Main article: North American X-15

X-15 in powered flight
The North American X-15 was an NACA experimental rocket-powered hypersonic research aircraft, developed in conjunction with the US Air Force and Navy. The design featured a slender fuselage with fairings along the side containing fuel and early computerized control systems.[29] Requests for proposal were issued on December 30, 1954, for the airframe, and February 4, 1955, for the rocket engine. The airframe contract was awarded to North American Aviation in November 1955, and the XLR30 engine contract was awarded to Reaction Motors in 1956, and three planes were built. The X-15 was drop-launched from the wing of one of two NASA Boeing B-52 Stratofortresses, NB52A tail number 52-003, and NB52B, tail number 52-008 (known as the Balls 8). Release took place at an altitude of about 45,000 feet (14 km) and a speed of about 500 miles per hour (805 km/h).

Twelve pilots were selected for the program from the Air Force, Navy, and NACA (later NASA). A total of 199 flights were made between 1959 and 1968, resulting in the official world record for the highest speed ever reached by a manned powered aircraft (current as of 2014), and a maximum speed of Mach 6.72, 4,519 miles per hour (7,273 km/h).[30] The altitude record for X-15 was 354,200 feet (107.96 km).[31] Eight of the pilots were awarded Air Force astronaut wings for flying above 260,000 feet (80 km), and two flights by Joseph A. Walker exceeded 100 kilometers (330,000 ft), qualifying as spaceflight according to the International Aeronautical Federation. The X-15 program employed mechanical techniques used in the later manned spaceflight programs, including reaction control system jets for controlling the orientation of a spacecraft, space suits, and horizon definition for navigation.[31] The reentry and landing data collected were valuable to NASA for designing the Space Shuttle.[29]

Project Mercury (1958–1963)
Main article: Project Mercury

John Glenn on Friendship 7: first US orbital flight, 1962
Shortly after the Space Race began, an early objective was to get a person into Earth orbit as soon as possible, therefore the simplest spacecraft that could be launched by existing rockets was favored. The US Air Force's Man in Space Soonest program considered many manned spacecraft designs, ranging from rocket planes like the X-15, to small ballistic space capsules.[32] By 1958, the space plane concepts were eliminated in favor of the ballistic capsule.[33]

When NASA was created that same year, the Air Force program was transferred to it and renamed Project Mercury. The first seven astronauts were selected among candidates from the Navy, Air Force and Marine test pilot programs. On May 5, 1961, astronaut Alan Shepard became the first American in space aboard Freedom 7, launched by a Redstone booster on a 15-minute ballistic (suborbital) flight.[34] John Glenn became the first American to be launched into orbit, by an Atlas launch vehicle on February 20, 1962, aboard Friendship 7.[35] Glenn completed three orbits, after which three more orbital flights were made, culminating in L. Gordon Cooper's 22-orbit flight Faith 7, May 15–16, 1963.[36] Katherine Johnson, Mary Jackson, and Dorothy Vaughan were three of the human computers doing calculations on trajectories during the Space Race.[37][38][39] Johnson was well known for doing trajectory calculations for John Glenn's mission in 1962, where she was running the same equations by hand that were being run on the computer.[37]

The Soviet Union (USSR) competed with its own single-pilot spacecraft, Vostok. They sent the first man in space, by launching cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin into a single Earth orbit aboard Vostok 1 in April 1961, one month before Shepard's flight.[40] In August 1962, they achieved an almost four-day record flight with Andriyan Nikolayev aboard Vostok 3, and also conducted a concurrent Vostok 4 mission carrying Pavel Popovich.

Project Gemini (1961–1966)
Main article: Project Gemini

Ed White on Gemini 4: first US spacewalk, 1965
Based on studies to grow the Mercury spacecraft capabilities to long-duration flights, developing space rendezvous techniques, and precision Earth landing, Project Gemini was started as a two-man program in 1962 to overcome the Soviets' lead and to support the Apollo manned lunar landing program, adding extravehicular activity (EVA) and rendezvous and docking to its objectives. The first manned Gemini flight, Gemini 3, was flown by Gus Grissom and John Young on March 23, 1965.[41] Nine missions followed in 1965 and 1966, demonstrating an endurance mission of nearly fourteen days, rendezvous, docking, and practical EVA, and gathering medical data on the effects of weightlessness on humans.[42][43]

Under the direction of Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, the USSR competed with Gemini by converting their Vostok spacecraft into a two- or three-man Voskhod. They succeeded in launching two manned flights before Gemini's first flight, achieving a three-cosmonaut flight in 1964 and the first EVA in 1965. After this, the program was canceled, and Gemini caught up while spacecraft designer Sergei Korolev developed the Soyuz spacecraft, their answer to Apollo.

Apollo program (1961–1972)
Main article: Apollo program

Apollo 11: Buzz Aldrin on the Moon, 1969
The U.S public's perception of the Soviet lead in the space race (by putting the first man into space) motivated President John F. Kennedy to ask the Congress on May 25, 1961, to commit the federal government to a program to land a man on the Moon by the end of the 1960s, which effectively launched the Apollo program.[44]

Apollo was one of the most expensive American scientific programs ever. It cost more than $20 billion in 1960s dollars[45] or an estimated $218 billion in present-day US dollars.[46] (In comparison, the Manhattan Project cost roughly $27.8 billion, accounting for inflation.)[46][47] It used the Saturn rockets as launch vehicles, which were far bigger than the rockets built for previous projects.[48] The spacecraft was also bigger; it had two main parts, the combined command and service module (CSM) and the Apollo Lunar Module (LM). The LM was to be left on the Moon and only the command module (CM) containing the three astronauts would eventually return to Earth.[note 2]

The second manned mission, Apollo 8, brought astronauts for the first time in a flight around the Moon in December 1968.[49] Shortly before, the Soviets had sent an unmanned spacecraft around the Moon.[50] On the next two missions docking maneuvers that were needed for the Moon landing were practiced[51][52] and then finally the Moon landing was made on the Apollo 11 mission in July 1969.[53]


Apollo 17: LRV-003, 1972
The first person to stand on the Moon was Neil Armstrong, who was followed 19 minutes later by Buzz Aldrin, while Michael Collins orbited above. Five subsequent Apollo missions also landed astronauts on the Moon, the last in December 1972. Throughout these six Apollo spaceflights, twelve men walked on the Moon. These missions returned a wealth of scientific data and 381.7 kilograms (842 lb) of lunar samples. Topics covered by experiments performed included soil mechanics, meteoroids, seismology, heat flow, lunar ranging, magnetic fields, and solar wind.[54] The Moon landing marked the end of the space race; and as a gesture, Armstrong mentioned mankind when he stepped down on the Moon.[55]

Apollo set major milestones in human spaceflight. It stands alone in sending manned missions beyond low Earth orbit, and landing humans on another celestial body.[56] Apollo 8 was the first manned spacecraft to orbit another celestial body, while Apollo 17 marked the last moonwalk and the last manned mission beyond low Earth orbit to date. The program spurred advances in many areas of technology peripheral to rocketry and manned spaceflight, including avionics, telecommunications, and computers. Apollo sparked interest in many fields of engineering and left many physical facilities and machines developed for the program as landmarks. Many objects and artifacts from the program are on display at various locations throughout the world, notably at the Smithsonian's Air and Space Museums.

Skylab (1965–1979)
Main article: Skylab

Skylab in 1974, seen from the departing Skylab 4 CSM.
Skylab was the United States' first and only independently built space station.[57] Conceived in 1965 as a workshop to be constructed in space from a spent Saturn IB upper stage, the 169,950 lb (77,088 kg) station was constructed on Earth and launched on May 14, 1973, atop the first two stages of a Saturn V, into a 235-nautical-mile (435 km) orbit inclined at 50° to the equator. Damaged during launch by the loss of its thermal protection and one electricity-generating solar panel, it was repaired to functionality by its first crew. It was occupied for a total of 171 days by 3 successive crews in 1973 and 1974.[57] It included a laboratory for studying the effects of microgravity, and a solar observatory.[57] NASA planned to have a Space Shuttle dock with it, and elevate Skylab to a higher safe altitude, but the Shuttle was not ready for flight before Skylab's re-entry on July 11, 1979.[58]

To save cost, NASA used one of the Saturn V rockets originally earmarked for a canceled Apollo mission to launch the Skylab. Apollo spacecraft were used for transporting astronauts to and from the station. Three three-man crews stayed aboard the station for periods of 28, 59, and 84 days. Skylab's habitable volume was 11,290 cubic feet (320 m3), which was 30.7 times bigger than that of the Apollo Command Module.[58]

Apollo–Soyuz Test Project (1972–1975)
Main article: Apollo–Soyuz Test Project

Soviet and American crews with spacecraft model, 1975.
On May 24, 1972, US President Richard M. Nixon and Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin signed an agreement calling for a joint manned space mission, and declaring intent for all future international manned spacecraft to be capable of docking with each other.[59] This authorized the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP), involving the rendezvous and docking in Earth orbit of a surplus Apollo Command/Service Module with a Soyuz spacecraft. The mission took place in July 1975. This was the last US manned space flight until the first orbital flight of the Space Shuttle in April 1981.[60]

The mission included both joint and separate scientific experiments, and provided useful engineering experience for future joint US–Russian space flights, such as the Shuttle–Mir Program[61] and the International Space Station.

Space Shuttle program (1972–2011)
Main article: Space Shuttle program

The first three African-American astronauts to go to space, Ronald McNair, Guy Bluford and Fred Gregory.

Mae Jemison working in Spacelab-J in 1992. Spacelab was a major NASA collaboration with space agencies in Europe and Japan
The Space Shuttle became the major focus of NASA in the late 1970s and the 1980s. Planned as a frequently launchable and mostly reusable vehicle, four Space Shuttle orbiters were built by 1985. The first to launch, Columbia, did so on April 12, 1981,[62] the 20th anniversary of the first known human space flight.[63]

Its major components were a spaceplane orbiter with an external fuel tank and two solid-fuel launch rockets at its side. The external tank, which was bigger than the spacecraft itself, was the only major component that was not reused. The shuttle could orbit in altitudes of 185–643 km (115–400 miles)[64] and carry a maximum payload (to low orbit) of 24,400 kg (54,000 lb).[65] Missions could last from 5 to 17 days and crews could be from 2 to 8 astronauts.[64]


Launch of a Space Shuttle in 2008
On 20 missions (1983–98) the Space Shuttle carried Spacelab, designed in cooperation with the European Space Agency (ESA). Spacelab was not designed for independent orbital flight, but remained in the Shuttle's cargo bay as the astronauts entered and left it through an airlock.[66] On June 18, 1983 Sally Ride became the first American woman in space, on board the Space Shuttle Challenger STS-7 mission.[67] Another famous series of missions were the launch and later successful repair of the Hubble Space Telescope in 1990 and 1993, respectively.[68]

In 1995, Russian-American interaction resumed with the Shuttle–Mir missions (1995–1998). Once more an American vehicle docked with a Russian craft, this time a full-fledged space station. This cooperation has continued with Russia and the United States as two of the biggest partners in the largest space station built: the International Space Station (ISS). The strength of their cooperation on this project was even more evident when NASA began relying on Russian launch vehicles to service the ISS during the two-year grounding of the shuttle fleet following the 2003 Space Shuttle Columbia disaster.

The Shuttle fleet lost two orbiters and 14 astronauts in two disasters: Challenger in 1986, and Columbia in 2003.[69] While the 1986 loss was mitigated by building the Space Shuttle Endeavour from replacement parts, NASA did not build another orbiter to replace the second loss.[69] NASA's Space Shuttle program had 135 missions when the program ended with the successful landing of the Space Shuttle Atlantis at the Kennedy Space Center on July 21, 2011. The program spanned 30 years with over 300 astronauts sent into space.[70]

International Space Station (1993–present)
Main article: International Space Station

Animation of assembly of the ISS
The International Space Station (ISS) combines NASA's Space Station Freedom project with the Soviet/Russian Mir-2 station, the European Columbus station, and the Japanese Kibō laboratory module.[71] NASA originally planned in the 1980s to develop Freedom alone, but US budget constraints led to the merger of these projects into a single multi-national program in 1993, managed by NASA, the Russian Federal Space Agency (RKA), the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), the European Space Agency (ESA), and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA).[72][73] The station consists of pressurized modules, external trusses, solar arrays and other components, which have been launched by Russian Proton and Soyuz rockets, and the US Space Shuttles.[71] It is currently being assembled in Low Earth Orbit. The on-orbit assembly began in 1998, the completion of the US Orbital Segment occurred in 2011 and the completion of the Russian Orbital Segment is expected by 2016.[74][75][needs update] The ownership and use of the space station is established in intergovernmental treaties and agreements[76] which divide the station into two areas and allow Russia to retain full ownership of the Russian Orbital Segment (with the exception of Zarya),[77][78] with the US Orbital Segment allocated between the other international partners.[76]

Long-duration missions to the ISS are referred to as ISS Expeditions. Expedition crew members typically spend approximately six months on the ISS.[79] The initial expedition crew size was three, temporarily decreased to two following the Columbia disaster. Since May 2009, expedition crew size has been six crew members.[80] Crew size is expected to be increased to seven, the number the ISS was designed for, once the Commercial Crew Program becomes operational.[81] The ISS has been continuously occupied for the past 18 years and 310 days, having exceeded the previous record held by Mir; and has been visited by astronauts and cosmonauts from 15 different nations.[82][83]


The International Space Station as seen by the final Space Shuttle mission
The station can be seen from the Earth with the naked eye and, as of 2019, is the largest artificial satellite in Earth orbit with a mass and volume greater than that of any previous space station.[84] The Soyuz spacecraft delivers crew members, stays docked for their half-year-long missions and then returns them home. Several uncrewed cargo spacecraft service the ISS; they are the Russian Progress spacecraft which has done so since 2000, the European Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) since 2008, the Japanese H-II Transfer Vehicle (HTV) since 2009, the American Dragon spacecraft since 2012, and the American Cygnus spacecraft since 2013. The Space Shuttle, before its retirement, was also used for cargo transfer and would often switch out expedition crew members, although it did not have the capability to remain docked for the duration of their stay. Until another US manned spacecraft is ready, crew members will travel to and from the International Space Station exclusively aboard the Soyuz.[85] The highest number of people occupying the ISS has been thirteen; this occurred three times during the late Shuttle ISS assembly missions.[86]

The ISS program is expected to continue until at least 2024, and may be extended beyond 2028.[87] On March 29, 2019, the ISS will have its first all-female spacewalk; Anne McClain and Christina Koch will take flight during Women's History Month.[88]

Commercial programs (2006–present)
Main articles: Commercial Resupply Services and Commercial Crew Development

Dragon being berthed to the ISS in May 2012

Cygnus berthed to the ISS in September 2013
The development of the Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) vehicles began in 2006 with the purpose of creating American commercially operated uncrewed cargo vehicles to service the ISS.[89] The development of these vehicles was under a fixed-price, milestone-based program, meaning that each company that received a funded award had a list of milestones with a dollar value attached to them that they didn't receive until after they had successfully completed the milestone.[90] Companies were also required to raise an unspecified amount of private investment for their proposal.[91]

On December 23, 2008, NASA awarded Commercial Resupply Services contracts to SpaceX and Orbital Sciences Corporation.[92] SpaceX uses its Falcon 9 rocket and Dragon spacecraft.[93] Orbital Sciences uses its Antares rocket and Cygnus spacecraft. The first Dragon resupply mission occurred in May 2012.[94] The first Cygnus resupply mission occurred in September 2013.[95] The CRS program now provides for all America's ISS cargo needs, with the exception of a few vehicle-specific payloads that are delivered on the European ATV and the Japanese HTV.[96]


Dragon V2

Rendering of CST-100 in orbit
The Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) program was started in 2010 with the purpose of creating American commercially operated crewed spacecraft capable of delivering at least four crew members to the ISS, staying docked for 180 days and then returning them back to Earth.[97] It is hoped that these vehicles could also transport non-NASA customers to private space stations such those planned by Bigelow Aerospace.[98] Like COTS, CCDev is a fixed-price, milestone-based developmental program that requires some private investment.[90]

In 2010, when NASA announced the winners of the first phase of the program, a total of $50 million was divided among five American companies to foster research and development into human spaceflight concepts and technologies in the private sector. In 2011, the winners of the second phase of the program were announced, and $270 million was divided among four companies.[99] In 2012, the winners of the third phase of the program were announced; NASA provided $1.1 billion divided among three companies to further develop their crew transportation systems.[100] In 2014, the winners of the final round were announced.[101] SpaceX's Dragon V2 (planned to be launched on a Falcon 9 v1.1) received a contract valued up to $2.6 billion and Boeing's CST-100 (to be launched on an Atlas V) received a contract valued up to $4.2 billion.[102] NASA expects these vehicles to begin transporting humans to the ISS in 2019.[103]

Artemis program (2017–present)
Main article: Artemis program
An arrowhead combined with a depiction of a trans-lunar injection trajectory forms an "A", with an "Artemis" wordmark printed underneath
Since 2017, NASA is focusing on the Artemis program, an ongoing crewed spaceflight program, with the help of U.S. commercial spaceflight companies, and international partners such as ESA.[104] The goal of this program is to land "the first woman and the next man" on the lunar south pole region by 2024. Artemis would be the first step towards the long-term goal of establishing a sustainable presence on the Moon, laying the foundation for private companies to build a lunar economy, and eventually sending humans to Mars.

In February 2010, President Barack Obama's administration proposed eliminating public funds for the Constellation program and shifting greater responsibility of servicing the ISS to private companies.[105] During a speech at the Kennedy Space Center on April 15, 2010, Obama proposed a new heavy-lift vehicle (HLV) to replace the formerly planned Ares V.[106] In his speech, Obama called for a manned mission to an asteroid as soon as 2025, and a manned mission to Mars orbit by the mid-2030s.[106] The NASA Authorization Act of 2010 was passed by Congress and signed into law on October 11, 2010.[107] The act officially canceled the Constellation program.[107]

The Authorization Act required a newly designed HLV be chosen within 90 days of its passing; the launch vehicle was given the name Space Launch System. The new law also required the construction of a beyond low earth orbit spacecraft.[108] The Orion spacecraft, which was being developed as part of the Constellation program, was chosen to fulfill this role.[109] The Space Launch System is planned to launch both Orion and other necessary hardware for missions beyond low Earth orbit.[110] The SLS is to be upgraded over time with more powerful versions. The initial capability of SLS is required to be able to lift 70 t (150,000 lb) into LEO. It is then planned to be upgraded to 105 t (231,000 lb) and then eventually to 130 t (290,000 lb).[109][111] Exploration Flight Test 1 (EFT-1), an unmanned test flight of Orion's crew module, was launched on December 5, 2014, atop a Delta IV Heavy rocket.[111] Artemis 1 is the uncrewed initial launch of SLS that would also send Orion on a Distant Retrograde Orbit, which is planned between 2020–2021.[104][112]


NASA Graphic for the Journey to Mars
NASA's next major space initiative is to be the construction of the Lunar Orbital Platform – Gateway (LOP-G). This initiative is to involve the construction of a new space station, which will have many features in common with the current International Space Station, except that it will be in orbit about the Moon, instead of the Earth.[113] This space station will be designed primarily for non-continuous human habitation. The first tentative steps of returning to crewed lunar missions will be Artemis 2, which is to include the Orion crew module, propelled by the SLS, and is to launch between 2022-2023.[104][114] This mission is to be a 10-day mission planned to briefly place a crew of four into a Lunar flyby.[111] The construction of the LOP-G would begin with the proposed Artemis 4, which is planned to deliver a crew of four to Lunar orbit along with the first modules of the LOP-G. This mission would last for up to 30 days.

On June 5, 2016, NASA and DARPA announced plans to also build a series of new X-planes over the next 10 years.[115] One of the planes will be the Quiet Supersonic Technology project, burning low-carbon biofuels and generating quiet sonic booms.[115]

NASA plans to build full scale deep space habitats such as the LOP-G and the Nautilus-X as part of its Next Space Technologies for Exploration Partnerships (NextSTEP) program.[116]

In 2017, NASA was directed by the congressional NASA Transition Authorization Act of 2017 to get humans to Mars-orbit (or to the Martian surface) by 2033.[117][118]

Uncrewed programs
Main article: List of uncrewed NASA missions

Pioneer 3 and 4 launched in 1958 and 1959, respectively
More than 1,000 uncrewed missions have been designed to explore the Earth and the solar system.[119] Besides exploration, communication satellites have also been launched by NASA.[120] The missions have been launched directly from Earth or from orbiting space shuttles, which could either deploy the satellite itself, or with a rocket stage to take it farther.

The first US uncrewed satellite was Explorer 1, which started as an ABMA/JPL project during the early part of the Space Race. It was launched in January 1958, two months after Sputnik. At the creation of NASA, the Explorer project was transferred to the agency and still continues to this day. Its missions have been focusing on the Earth and the Sun, measuring magnetic fields and the solar wind, among other aspects.[121] A more recent Earth mission, not related to the Explorer program, was the Hubble Space Telescope, which was brought into orbit in 1990.[122]

The inner Solar System has been made the goal of at least four uncrewed programs. The first was Mariner in the 1960s and 1970s, which made multiple visits to Venus and Mars and one to Mercury. Probes launched under the Mariner program were also the first to make a planetary flyby (Mariner 2), to take the first pictures from another planet (Mariner 4), the first planetary orbiter (Mariner 9), and the first to make a gravity assist maneuver (Mariner 10). This is a technique where the satellite takes advantage of the gravity and velocity of planets to reach its destination.[123]

The first successful landing on Mars was made by Viking 1 in 1976. Twenty years later a rover was landed on Mars by Mars Pathfinder.[124]

File:NASA 60th- What’s Out There.webm
Video of many of the uncrewed missions were used to explore the outer reaches of space
Outside Mars, Jupiter was first visited by Pioneer 10 in 1973. More than 20 years later Galileo sent a probe into the planet's atmosphere, and became the first spacecraft to orbit the planet.[125] Pioneer 11 became the first spacecraft to visit Saturn in 1979, with Voyager 2 making the first (and so far only) visits to Uranus and Neptune in 1986 and 1989, respectively. The first spacecraft to leave the solar system was Pioneer 10 in 1983. For a time it was the most distant spacecraft, but it has since been surpassed by both Voyager 1 and Voyager 2.[126]

Pioneers 10 and 11 and both Voyager probes carry messages from the Earth to extraterrestrial life.[127][128] Communication can be difficult with deep space travel. For instance, it took about three hours for a radio signal to reach the New Horizons spacecraft when it was more than halfway to Pluto.[129] Contact with Pioneer 10 was lost in 2003. Both Voyager probes continue to operate as they explore the outer boundary between the Solar System and interstellar space.[130]

On November 26, 2011, NASA's Mars Science Laboratory mission was successfully launched for Mars. Curiosity successfully landed on Mars on August 6, 2012, and subsequently began its search for evidence of past or present life on Mars.[131][132][133]

Activities (2010–2017)
NASA's ongoing investigations include in-depth surveys of Mars (Mars 2020 and InSight) and Saturn and studies of the Earth and the Sun. Other active spacecraft missions are Juno for Jupiter, New Horizons (for Jupiter, Pluto, and beyond), and Dawn for the asteroid belt. NASA continued to support in situ exploration beyond the asteroid belt, including Pioneer and Voyager traverses into the unexplored trans-Pluto region, and Gas Giant orbiters Galileo (1989–2003), Cassini(1997–2017), and Juno (2011–). In the early 2000s, NASA was put on course for the Moon, however in 2010 this program was cancelled (see Constellation program). As part of that plan the Shuttle was going to be replaced, however, although it was retired its replacement was also cancelled, leaving the US with no human spaceflight launcher for the first time in over three decades.

The New Horizons mission to Pluto was launched in 2006 and successfully performed a flyby of Pluto on July 14, 2015. The probe received a gravity assist from Jupiter in February 2007, examining some of Jupiter's inner moons and testing on-board instruments during the flyby. On the horizon of NASA's plans is the MAVEN spacecraft as part of the Mars Scout Program to study the atmosphere of Mars.[134]


Radioisotope within a graphite shell that goes into the generator
On December 4, 2006, NASA announced it was planning a permanent Moon base.[135] The goal was to start building the Moon base by 2020, and by 2024, have a fully functional base that would allow for crew rotations and in-situ resource utilization. However, in 2009, the Augustine Committee found the program to be on an "unsustainable trajectory."[136] In 2010, President Barack Obama halted existing plans, including the Moon base, and directed a generic focus on manned missions to asteroids and Mars, as well as extending support for the International Space Station.[137]


JWST main mirror assembled, November 2016
Since 2011, NASA's strategic goals have been[138]

Extend and sustain human activities across the solar system
Expand scientific understanding of the Earth and the universe
Create innovative new space technologies
Advance aeronautics research
Enable program and institutional capabilities to conduct NASA's aeronautics and space activities
Share NASA with the public, educators, and students to provide opportunities to participate
In August 2011, NASA accepted the donation of two space telescopes from the National Reconnaissance Office. Despite being stored unused, the instruments are superior to the Hubble Space Telescope.[139]

In September 2011, NASA announced the start of the Space Launch System program to develop a human-rated heavy lift vehicle. The Space Launch System is intended to launch the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle and other elements towards the Moon, near-Earth asteroids, and one day Mars.[140] The Orion MPCV conducted an unmanned test launch on a Delta IV Heavy rocket in December 2014.[141]

The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is currently scheduled to launch in May 2020.[142]


Curiosity's wheel on Mars, 2012

Curiosity's battered wheel after several years of exploration, 2017
On August 6, 2012, NASA landed the rover Curiosity on Mars. On August 27, 2012, Curiosity transmitted the first pre-recorded message from the surface of Mars back to Earth, made by Administrator Charlie Bolden:

Hello. This is Charlie Bolden, NASA Administrator, speaking to you via the broadcast capabilities of the Curiosity rover, which is now on the surface of Mars.

Since the beginning of time, humankind's curiosity has led us to constantly seek new life ... new possibilities just beyond the horizon. I want to congratulate the men and women of our NASA family as well as our commercial and government partners around the world, for taking us a step beyond to Mars.

This is an extraordinary achievement. Landing a rover on Mars is not easy – others have tried – only America has fully succeeded. The investment we are making ... the knowledge we hope to gain from our observation and analysis of Gale Crater, will tell us much about the possibility of life on Mars as well as the past and future possibilities for our own planet. Curiosity will bring benefits to Earth and inspire a new generation of scientists and explorers, as it prepares the way for a human mission in the not too distant future. Thank you.[143]

Recent and planned activities
NASA's ongoing investigations include in-depth surveys of Mars (Mars 2020 and InSight) and Saturn and studies of the Earth and the Sun. Other active spacecraft missions are Juno for Jupiter, New Horizons (for Jupiter, Pluto, and beyond), and Dawn for the asteroid belt. NASA continued to support in situ exploration beyond the asteroid belt, including Pioneer and Voyager traverses into the unexplored trans-Pluto region, and Gas Giant orbiters Galileo (1989–2003), Cassini (1997–2017), and Juno (2011–).

The New Horizons mission to Pluto was launched in 2006 and successfully performed a flyby of Pluto on July 14, 2015. The probe received a gravity assist from Jupiter in February 2007, examining some of Jupiter's inner moons and testing on-board instruments during the flyby. On the horizon of NASA's plans is the MAVEN spacecraft as part of the Mars Scout Program to study the atmosphere of Mars.[134]

In 2017, President Donald Trump directed NASA to send Humans to Mars by the year 2033.[117][144] Foci in general for NASA were noted as human space exploration, space science, and technology.[144] The Europa Clipper and Mars 2020 continue to be supported for their planned schedules.[145]

In 2018, NASA alongside with other companies including Sensor Coating Systems, Pratt & Whitney, Monitor Coating and UTRC have launched the project CAUTION (CoAtings for Ultra High Temperature detectION). This project aims to enhance the temperature range of the Thermal History Coating up to 1,500C and beyond. The final goal of this project is improving the safety of jet engines as well as increasing efficiency and reducing CO2 emissions.[146]

The Northrop Grumman Antares rocket, with Cygnus resupply spacecraft on board, launches from Pad-0A, Wednesday, April 17, 2019 at NASA's Wallops Flight Facility in Virginia. Northrop Grumman's 11th contracted cargo resupply mission for NASA to the International Space Station will deliver about 7,600 pounds of science and research, crew supplies and vehicle hardware to the orbital laboratory and its crew.[147]

Recent and planned activities include:

InSight, launched and landed on Mars in 2018
New Horizons, Kuiper belt object (486958) 2014 MU69 flyby on January 1, 2019[148]
Osiris-Rex, en route for asteroid sample return on September 24, 2023[149]
Mars 2020 rover (planned)[150]
Europa Clipper (planned)
Misc. Discovery Missions[citation needed]
Misc. Explorer Missions[citation needed]
New Frontier mission including New Horizons, Juno, and Osiris-Rex[151]
Earth Observation, Solar and Astronomical observatories[citation needed]
James Webb Space Telescope (planned)
Parker Solar Probe, launched August 2018
Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS), launched in April 2018
Wide Field Infrared Survey Telescope (WFIRST) (planned)[152]
NASA Advisory Council
In response to the Apollo 1 accident, which killed three astronauts in 1967, Congress directed NASA to form an Aerospace Safety Advisory Panel (ASAP) to advise the NASA Administrator on safety issues and hazards in NASA's aerospace programs. In the aftermath of the Shuttle Columbia disaster, Congress required that the ASAP submit an annual report to the NASA Administrator and to Congress.[153] By 1971, NASA had also established the Space Program Advisory Council and the Research and Technology Advisory Council to provide the administrator with advisory committee support. In 1977, the latter two were combined to form the NASA Advisory Council (NAC).[154]

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 2014 reaffirmed the importance of ASAP.

Directives
Further information: Space policy of the United States

Artistic rendition of Space Station Freedom with the Orbiter Vehicle
Some of the major NASA directives were to land people on the Moon, build the Space Shuttle, and build a large space station. Typically, the major directives had the intervention of the science advisory, political, funding, and public interest that synergized into various waves of effort often heavily swayed by technical, funding, and worldwide events. For example, there was a major push to build Space Station Freedom in the 1980s, but when the Cold War ended, the Russians, the Americans and other international partners came together to build the International Space Station.

In the 2010s, the major shift was the retirement of the Space Shuttle and the development of a new manned heavy lift rocket, the Space Launch System. Missions for the new System have varied but overall, they were similar as it primarily involved the desire to send a human into the space. The Space Exploration Initiative of the 1980s opened newer avenues of galaxy exploration.

In the coming decades, the focus is gradually shifting towards exploration of planet Mars; however, some differences exist over the technologies to develop and focus on for the exploration.[155] One of the options considered was the Asteroid Redirect Mission (ARM).[155] ARM had largely been defunded in 2017, but the key technologies developed for ARM would be utilized for future exploration, especially on a solar electric propulsion system.[156][155]

Longer project execution timelines means it is up to future officials to execute on a directive, which often leads to directional mismanagement. For example, a Shuttle replacement has numerous components involved, each making some headway before being called off for various reasons including the National Aerospace Plane, Venture Star, Orbital Space Plane, Ares I, and others. The asteroid mission was not a major directive in the 2010s. Instead, the general support rested with the long-term goal of getting humans to Mars. The space shuttle was retired and much of the existing road map was shelved including the then planned Lunar Return and Ares I human launch vehicle.

Previously, in the early 2000s, there was a plan called the Constellation Program but this was defunded in the early 2010s.[157][158][159][160] In the 1990s, there was a plan called "Faster, Better, Cheaper"[161] In the 1980s, there was a directive to build a manned space station.[162]

NASA Authorization Act of 2017

Orion at ISS artwork
The NASA Authorization Act of 2017, which included $19.5 billion in funding for that fiscal year, directed NASA to get humans near or on the surface of Mars by the early 2030s.[163]

Space Policy Directive 1
In December 2017, on the 45th anniversary of the last manned mission to the Lunar surface, President Donald Trump approved a directive that includes a lunar mission on the pathway to Mars and beyond.[155]

We'll learn. The directive I'm signing today will refocus America's space program on human exploration and discovery. It marks an important step in returning American astronauts to the Moon for the first time since 1972 for long-term exploration and use. This time, we will not only plant our flag and leave our footprint, we will establish a foundation for an eventual mission to Mars. And perhaps, someday, to many worlds beyond.

— President Donald Trump, 2017[164]
New NASA administrator Jim Bridenstine addressed this directive in an August 2018 speech where he focused on the sustainability aspects—going to the Moon to stay—that are explicit in the directive, including taking advantage of US commercial space capability that did not exist even five years ago, which have driven down costs and increased access to space.[165]

Research
Main article: NASA research
For technologies funded or otherwise supported by NASA, see NASA spinoff technologies.

NASA developed this hard-suit in the 1980s at the Ames Research Center
NASA's Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate conducts aeronautics research.

NASA has made use of technologies such as the Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (MMRTG), which is a type of Radioisotope thermoelectric generator used on space missions.[166] Shortages of this material have curtailed deep space missions since the turn of the millennia.[167] An example of a spacecraft that was not developed because of a shortage of this material was New Horizons 2.[167]

The Earth science research program was created and first funded in the 1980s under the administrations of Ronald Reagan and George H.W. Bush.[168][169]

NASA started an annual competition in 2014 named Cubes in Space.[170] It is jointly organized by NASA and the global education company I Doodle Learning, with the objective of teaching school students aged 11–18 to design and build scientific experiments to be launched into space on a NASA rocket or balloon. On June 21, 2017 the world's smallest satellite, Kalam SAT, built by an Indian team, was launched.[171]

Climate and other research
NASA also researches and publishes on climate change.[172] Its statements concur with the global scientific consensus that the global climate is warming.[173] Bob Walker, who has advised US President Donald Trump on space issues, has advocated that NASA should focus on space exploration and that its climate study operations should be transferred to other agencies such as NOAA. Former NASA atmospheric scientist J. Marshall Shepherd countered that Earth science study was built into NASA's mission at its creation in the 1958 National Aeronautics and Space Act.[174]

NASA contracted a third party to study the probability of using Free Space Optics (FSO) to communicate with Optical (laser) Stations on the Ground (OGS) called laser-com RF networks for satellite communications.[175]

Facilities
Jet Propulsion Laboratory complex in Pasadena, California
Jet Propulsion Laboratory complex in Pasadena, California
Vehicle Assembly Building and Launch Control Center at Kennedy Space Center
Vehicle Assembly Building and Launch Control Center at Kennedy Space Center
Main article: NASA facilities
NASA's facilities are research, construction and communication centers to help its missions. Some facilities serve more than one application for historic or administrative reasons.[176][177][178]

John F. Kennedy Space Center (KSC) is one of the best-known NASA facilities. It has been the launch site for every United States human space flight since 1968. Although human flights are currently on pause, KSC continues to manage and operate unmanned rocket launch facilities for America's civilian space program from three pads at the adjoining Cape Canaveral Air Force Station. NASA also operates a short-line railroad at KSC and uses special aircraft.

Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center (JSC) in Houston is home to the Christopher C. Kraft Jr. Mission Control Center, where all flight control is managed for manned space missions. JSC is the lead NASA center for activities regarding the International Space Station and also houses the NASA Astronaut Corps that selects, trains, and provides astronauts as crew members for US and international space missions.


FCR 1 in 2009 during the STS-128 mission, JSC in Houston
Another major facility is Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama at which the Saturn 5 rocket and Skylab were developed.[179] The JPL worked together with ABMA, one of the agencies behind Explorer 1, the first American space mission.

The ten NASA field centers are:

John F. Kennedy Space Center, Florida
Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, California
Armstrong Flight Research Center (formerly Hugh L. Dryden Flight Research Facility), Edwards, California
Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, near Pasadena, California
Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas
Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia
John H. Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio
George C. Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama
John C. Stennis Space Center, Bay St. Louis, Mississippi
Numerous other facilities are operated by NASA, including the Wallops Flight Facility in Wallops Island, Virginia; the Michoud Assembly Facility in New Orleans, Louisiana; the White Sands Test Facility in Las Cruces, New Mexico; and Deep Space Network stations in Barstow, California; Madrid, Spain; and Canberra, Australia.

Budget

NASA's budget from 1958 to 2012 as a percentage of federal budget

An artist's conception, from NASA, of an astronaut planting a US flag on Mars. A manned mission to Mars has been discussed as a possible NASA mission since the 1960s.
Main article: Budget of NASA
NASA's share of the total federal budget peaked at approximately 4.41% in 1966 during the Apollo program, then rapidly declined to approximately 1% in 1975, and stayed around that level through 1998.[23][180] The percentage then gradually dropped, until leveling off again at around half a percent in 2006 (estimated in 2012 at 0.48% of the federal budget).[181] In a March 2012 hearing of the United States Senate Science Committee, science communicator Neil deGrasse Tyson testified that "Right now, NASA's annual budget is half a penny on your tax dollar. For twice that—a penny on a dollar—we can transform the country from a sullen, dispirited nation, weary of economic struggle, to one where it has reclaimed its 20th century birthright to dream of tomorrow."[182][183]

Despite this, public perception of NASA's budget differs significantly: a 1997 poll indicated that most Americans believed that 20% of the federal budget went to NASA.[184]

For Fiscal Year 2015, NASA received an appropriation of US$18.01 billion from Congress—$549 million more than requested and approximately $350 million more than the 2014 NASA budget passed by Congress.[185]

In Fiscal Year 2016, NASA received $19.3 billion.[144]

President Donald Trump signed the NASA Transition Authorization Act of 2017 in March, which set the 2017 budget at around $19.5 billion.[144] The budget is also reported as $19.3 billion for 2017, with $20.7 billion proposed for FY2018.[186][187]

Examples of some proposed FY2018 budgets:[187]

Exploration: $4.79 billion
Planetary science: $2.23 billion
Earth science: $1.92 billion
Aeronautics: $0.685 billion
Environmental impact
The exhaust gases produced by rocket propulsion systems, both in Earth's atmosphere and in space, can adversely effect the Earth's environment. Some hypergolic rocket propellants, such as hydrazine, are highly toxic prior to combustion, but decompose into less toxic compounds after burning. Rockets using hydrocarbon fuels, such as kerosene, release carbon dioxide and soot in their exhaust.[188] However, carbon dioxide emissions are insignificant compared to those from other sources; on average, the United States consumed 802,620,000 US gallons (3.0382×109 L) gallons of liquid fuels per day in 2014, while a single Falcon 9 rocket first stage burns around 25,000 US gallons (95,000 L) of kerosene fuel per launch.[189][190] Even if a Falcon 9 were launched every single day, it would only represent 0.006% of liquid fuel consumption (and carbon dioxide emissions) for that day. Additionally, the exhaust from LOx- and LH2- fueled engines, like the SSME, is almost entirely water vapor.[191] NASA addressed environmental concerns with its canceled Constellation program in accordance with the National Environmental Policy Act in 2011.[192] In contrast, ion engines use harmless noble gases like xenon for propulsion.[193][194]

On May 8, 2003, Environmental Protection Agency recognized NASA as the first federal agency to directly use landfill gas to produce energy at one of its facilities—the Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland.[195]

An example of NASA's environmental efforts is the NASA Sustainability Base. Additionally, the Exploration Sciences Building was awarded the LEED Gold rating in 2010.[196]

Gallery
Observations

Plot of orbits of known Potentially Hazardous Asteroids (size over 460 feet (140 m) and passing within 4.7 million miles (7.6×106 km) of Earth's orbit)

 

Various nebulae observed from a NASA space telescope

 

1 Ceres

 

Pluto

 

Jupiter

Spacecraft

Hardware comparison of Apollo, Gemini, and Mercury[note 3]

 

Hubble Space Telescope, astronomy observatory in Earth orbit since 1990. Also visited by the Space Shuttle

 

Curiosity rover, roving Mars since 2012

Planned spacecraft

James Webb Space Telescope rendering in orbit

 

Orion spacecraft design as of January 2013

 

Space Launch System concept art

 

Mars 2020 rover design art

Concepts
NASA has developed oftentimes elaborate plans and technology concepts, some of which become worked into real plans.


Space Tug concept, 1970s

 

Vision mission for an interstellar precursor spacecraft by NASA, 2000s

 

Langley's Mars Ice Dome design for a Mars habitat, 2010s

Examples of missions by target

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Here are some selected examples of missions to planetary-sized objects. Other major targets of study are the Earth itself, the Sun, and smaller Solar System bodies like asteroids and comets. In addition, the moons of the planets or body are also studied.

Examples of robotic missions
Spacecraft	Launch
year	Mercury	Venus	Mars	Ceres	Jupiter	Saturn	Uranus	Neptune	Pluto	Mission
end
Mariner 2	1962		Flyby								1963
Mariner 4	1964			Flyby							1967
Mariner 5	1967		Flyby								1968
Mariner 6 and 7	1969			Flyby							1971
Mariner 9	1971			Orbiter							1972
Pioneer 10	1972					Flyby					2003
Pioneer 11	1973					Flyby	Flyby				1995
Mariner 10	1973	Flyby	Flyby								1975
Viking 1 and Viking 2	1975			Orbiters
Landers							1982 & 1980
Voyager 1	1977					Flyby	Flyby				Active
Voyager 2	1977					Flyby	Flyby	Flyby	Flyby		Active
Galileo	1989		Flyby			Orbiter					2003
Magellan	1989		Orbiter								1994
Mars Global Surveyor	1996			Orbiter							2007
Cassini	1997		Flyby			Flyby	Orbiter				2017
Mars Odyssey	2001			Orbiter							Active
Spirit and Opportunity	2003			Rovers							2010 & 2019
MESSENGER	2004	Orbiter	Flyby								2015
Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter	2005			Orbiter							Active
New Horizons	2006					Flyby				Flyby	Active
Dawn	2007			Flyby	Orbiter						2019
Phoenix	2007			Lander							2010
Juno	2011					Orbiter					Active
Curiosity (Mars Science Laboratory)	2011			Rover							Active
MAVEN	2013			Orbiter							Active
InSight	2018			Lander							Active
Spacecraft	Launch
year	Mercury	Venus	Mars	Ceres	Jupiter	Saturn	Uranus	Neptune	Pluto	Mission
end
Examples of missions to the Sun:

Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph
Solar Dynamics Observatory
STEREO
Ulysses
Parker Solar Probe
Examples of missions to the Moon:

Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter
LADEE
Examples of missions to small Solar System bodies (e.g. comets and asteroids):

NEAR Shoemaker
Deep Impact
OSIRIS-REx
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Notes
 NASA is an independent agency that is not a part of any executive department but reports directly to the President.[5][6]
 The descend stage of the LM stayed on the Moon after landing while the ascend stage brought the two astronauts back to the CSM and then fell back to the Moon.
 From left to right: Launch vehicle of Apollo (Saturn 5), Gemini (Titan 2) and Mercury (Atlas). Left, top-down: Spacecraft of Apollo, Gemini and Mercury. The Saturn IB and Mercury-Redstone launch vehicles are left out.
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