references_1.bib

@article{lyubushin_investigation_2010,
	title = {Investigation of seismicity in western himalaya},
	volume = {11},
	abstract = {Analysis of hidden periodicity of seismic records for Western part of Himalaya indicates a well defined precursors for the 29 March 1999 Chamoli earthquake of Mw=6.6 and for 19 October 1991 Uttarkashi earthquake, Mb=6.4, as statistically significant increasing of periodic component of main-shocks’ sequence intensity estimated within moving time window of the length 4 years. The detailed analysis of new compiled seismic catalogue of the study region for a period of 1552 to 2004 highlight the importance of significant role of smaller magnitude earthquake for precursory study.},
	pages = {27--34},
	journaltitle = {Russ. J. Geophysical Research},
	author = {Lyubushin, A.A. and {Arora B.R.} and {Kumar N.}},
	date = {2010},
	file = {Alexey A Lyubushin B R Arora N - 2010 - Investigation of seismicity in western himalaya.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\93MPAGRT\\Alexey A Lyubushin B R Arora N - 2010 - Investigation of seismicity in western himalaya.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{yadav_seismicity_2016,
	title = {Seismicity and stress inversion study in the Kangra–Chamba region of north-west Himalaya},
	volume = {82},
	issn = {0921-030X, 1573-0840},
	url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11069-016-2251-y},
	doi = {10.1007/s11069-016-2251-y},
	abstract = {The seismotectonic of the Kangra–Chamba region, the source zone of the 1905 great Kangra earthquake (M 8.0), has been studied analysing about 350 local earthquakes recorded by broadband seismological network under operation in {NW} Himalaya. The study reveals that the seismic activity is concentrated to the north of surface trace of the Main Boundary Thrust, Panjal Thrust and Chamba Thrust. The hypocenters are confined within 40 km depth with higher concentration in the uppermost crust. Fault plane solutions of 41 selected local earthquakes are examined. The fault plane solutions for shallow earthquakes ({\textbackslash}10 km) predominantly shows thrust mechanisms, whereas earthquakes below *10 km depth shows normal faulting mechanism. The stress tensor study reveals maximum compressional stress (r1) with trends 29°N and plunges at 6°, and the minimum stress (r3) trends at 134°N and plunges at 67° in the upper 10-km crust favouring thrust mechanism of the earthquakes with a {NE}-directed regional compressive stress. In the deeper part, r1 trends at 244°N and plunges at 59° while r3 shows extension trending at 9°N with a plunge of 20° giving evidence of extensional tectonics in the central part of the study area. The {NE}-dipping thrust sheets existing in the region as well as {SW}-dipping Chenab Normal Fault merges with the detachment that creates a complex tectonic interaction which is responsible for generating normal faulting earthquakes below the detachment plane.},
	pages = {1393--1409},
	number = {2},
	journaltitle = {Nat Hazards},
	author = {Yadav, Dilip Kumar and Hazarika, Devajit and Kumar, Naresh},
	urldate = {2020-08-29},
	date = {2016-06},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Yadav et al. - 2016 - Seismicity and stress inversion study in the Kangr.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\9EPKDCDJ\\Yadav et al. - 2016 - Seismicity and stress inversion study in the Kangr.pdf:application/pdf;Yadav et al. - 2016 - Seismicity and stress inversion study in the Kangr.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\T3N9KRAI\\Yadav et al. - 2016 - Seismicity and stress inversion study in the Kangr.pdf:application/pdf;Yadav et al. - 2016 - Seismicity and stress inversion study in the Kangr.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\NL2SNQXF\\Yadav et al. - 2016 - Seismicity and stress inversion study in the Kangr.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{ni_seismotectonics_1984,
	title = {Seismotectonics of the Himalayan Collision Zone: Geometry of the underthrusting Indian Plate beneath the Himalaya},
	volume = {89},
	issn = {01480227},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/JB089iB02p01147},
	doi = {10.1029/JB089iB02p01147},
	shorttitle = {Seismotectonics of the Himalayan Collision Zone},
	pages = {1147--1163},
	issue = {B2},
	journaltitle = {J. Geophys. Res.},
	author = {Ni, James and Barazangi, Muawia},
	urldate = {2020-08-29},
	date = {1984-02-10},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Ni and Barazangi - 1984 - Seismotectonics of the Himalayan Collision Zone G.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\Q3VEZUPJ\\Ni and Barazangi - 1984 - Seismotectonics of the Himalayan Collision Zone G.pdf:application/pdf;Ni and Barazangi - 1984 - Seismotectonics of the Himalayan Collision Zone G.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\CYREK4VE\\Ni and Barazangi - 1984 - Seismotectonics of the Himalayan Collision Zone G.pdf:application/pdf;Ni and Barazangi - 1984 - Seismotectonics of the Himalayan Collision Zone G.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\4ZIDP7Q6\\Ni and Barazangi - 1984 - Seismotectonics of the Himalayan Collision Zone G.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{mukhopadhyay_seismic_2013,
	title = {Seismic hazard assessment of Kashmir and Kangra valley region, Western Himalaya, India},
	volume = {6},
	issn = {1947-5705, 1947-5713},
	url = {http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/19475705.2013.832405},
	doi = {10.1080/19475705.2013.832405},
	pages = {149--183},
	number = {2},
	journaltitle = {Geomatics, Natural Hazards and Risk},
	author = {Mukhopadhyay, Basab and Dasgupta, Sujit},
	urldate = {2020-08-29},
	date = {2013-10-10},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Mukhopadhyay and Dasgupta - 2015 - Seismic hazard assessment of Kashmir and Kangra va.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\6XBCWFHK\\Mukhopadhyay and Dasgupta - 2015 - Seismic hazard assessment of Kashmir and Kangra va.pdf:application/pdf;Mukhopadhyay and Dasgupta - 2015 - Seismic hazard assessment of Kashmir and Kangra va.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\B6P54R3V\\Mukhopadhyay and Dasgupta - 2015 - Seismic hazard assessment of Kashmir and Kangra va.pdf:application/pdf;Mukhopadhyay and Dasgupta - 2015 - Seismic hazard assessment of Kashmir and Kangra va.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\8XWH2K4U\\Mukhopadhyay and Dasgupta - 2015 - Seismic hazard assessment of Kashmir and Kangra va.pdf:application/pdf;Mukhopadhyay and Dasgupta - 2015 - Seismic hazard assessment of Kashmir and Kangra va.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\MX39TBAG\\Mukhopadhyay and Dasgupta - 2015 - Seismic hazard assessment of Kashmir and Kangra va.pdf:application/pdf;Mukhopadhyay and Dasgupta - 2015 - Seismic hazard assessment of Kashmir and Kangra va.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\ASMUG3TK\\Mukhopadhyay and Dasgupta - 2015 - Seismic hazard assessment of Kashmir and Kangra va.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{ali_study_2017,
	title = {Study of seismicity in the {NW} Himalaya and adjoining regions using {IMS} network},
	volume = {21},
	issn = {1383-4649, 1573-157X},
	url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10950-016-9603-7},
	doi = {10.1007/s10950-016-9603-7},
	pages = {317--334},
	number = {2},
	journaltitle = {J Seismol},
	author = {Ali, Sherif M. and Shanker, D.},
	urldate = {2020-08-29},
	date = {2017-03},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Ali and Shanker - 2017 - Study of seismicity in the NW Himalaya and adjoini.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\K9QPR2LK\\Ali and Shanker - 2017 - Study of seismicity in the NW Himalaya and adjoini.pdf:application/pdf;Ali and Shanker - 2017 - Study of seismicity in the NW Himalaya and adjoini.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\MMSXUXJL\\Ali and Shanker - 2017 - Study of seismicity in the NW Himalaya and adjoini.pdf:application/pdf;Ali and Shanker - 2017 - Study of seismicity in the NW Himalaya and adjoini.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\3J2EGS4V\\Ali and Shanker - 2017 - Study of seismicity in the NW Himalaya and adjoini.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{bilham_apparent_2005,
	title = {Apparent Himalayan slip deficit from the summation of seismic moments for Himalayan earthquakes, 1500–2000},
	volume = {88},
	pages = {7},
	number = {10},
	journaltitle = {Current Science},
	author = {Bilham, Roger and Ambraseys, Nicholas},
	date = {2005},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Bilham and Ambraseys - 2005 - Apparent Himalayan slip deficit from the summation.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\K8NB2FQB\\Bilham and Ambraseys - 2005 - Apparent Himalayan slip deficit from the summation.pdf:application/pdf;Bilham and Ambraseys - 2005 - Apparent Himalayan slip deficit from the summation.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\MC5WPSAZ\\Bilham and Ambraseys - 2005 - Apparent Himalayan slip deficit from the summation.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{bilham_implications_2017,
	title = {Implications for elastic energy storage in the Himalaya from the Gorkha 2015 earthquake and other incomplete ruptures of the Main Himalayan Thrust},
	volume = {462},
	issn = {10406182},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1040618216308187},
	doi = {10.1016/j.quaint.2016.09.055},
	abstract = {Rupture in the 2015 M7.8 Gorkha earthquake nucleated at the downdip edge of the Main Himalayan Thrust ({MHT}) near the transition from interseismic locking to aseismic creep beneath the Tibetan plateau, and propagated incompletely towards the Main Frontal Thrusts ({MFT}). Despite the imposition of a substantial static strain in the middécollement, afterslip on the {MHT} within a year of the earthquake had decayed to negligible levels. Earthquakes that incompletely rupture the {MHT} (7{\textless}Mw{\textless}7.9) have been relatively common in the past two centuries, and as a consequence heterogeneous patches of stored elastic strain must exist throughout the Himalaya similar to that emplaced by the Gorkha earthquake. We show that these patches of stored strain are not dissipated by creep or by subsequent updip earthquakes, with the possible exception of a sequence of moderate earthquakes to the east of the great 1950 Assam earthquake. It is thus considered likely that mid-décollement strain newly imposed by the Gorkha earthquake, and other recent incomplete ruptures will be incorporated in the rupture of a future much larger earthquake. Incomplete ruptures (i.e. those that nucleate downdip but fail to rupture the frontal thrusts) appear to occur preferentially in parts of the central Himalaya characterized by relatively narrow transition regions of interseismic decoupling ({\textless}30 km downdip). Assuming uniform strain at failure these narrow zones are unable to store large amounts of strain energy compared to wide zones of interseismic decoupling. Since the transition from fully locked to a fully creeping rheology depends partly on temperature, to first order the width of the interseismic decoupling transition zone depends on the local dip of the {MHT}. Where the decoupling zone is narrow (25 km) moderate earthquakes (6{\textless}Mw{\textless}7) are observed to occur at intervals of a few hundred years. Where the transition zone is wide (e.g. Kashmir and Assam, 150 km) great earthquakes nucleate at long time intervals (millennia). Because the cumulative moment release of moderate earthquakes in regions of narrow seismic decoupling is insufficient to keep up with plate convergence, we conclude that megaquakes that eventually sweep through these regions are augmented by the heterogenous fossil strain of former incomplete ruptures. Because great earthquakes in the central Himalaya are inferred to nucleate from moderate earthquakes near the base of the {MHT}, the preparation zones of these moderate earthquakes may provide opportunities for forecasting the approach of future great earthquakes.},
	pages = {3--21},
	journaltitle = {Quaternary International},
	author = {Bilham, Roger and Mencin, David and Bendick, Rebecca and Bürgmann, Roland},
	urldate = {2020-08-29},
	date = {2017-12},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Bilham et al. - 2017 - Implications for elastic energy storage in the Him.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\6Y966MSP\\Bilham et al. - 2017 - Implications for elastic energy storage in the Him.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{ambraseys_note_2003,
	title = {A note on early earthquakes in northern India and southern Tibet},
	volume = {84},
	pages = {13},
	number = {4},
	journaltitle = {Current Science},
	author = {Ambraseys, N and Jackson, D},
	date = {2003},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Ambraseys and Jackson - 2003 - A note on early earthquakes in northern India and .pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\MMQRLACE\\Ambraseys and Jackson - 2003 - A note on early earthquakes in northern India and .pdf:application/pdf;Ambraseys and Jackson - 2003 - A note on early earthquakes in northern India and .pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\3NXA9WE7\\Ambraseys and Jackson - 2003 - A note on early earthquakes in northern India and .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{ambraseys_magnitude_2004,
	title = {Magnitude calibration of north Indian earthquakes},
	volume = {159},
	issn = {0956540X, 1365246X},
	url = {https://academic.oup.com/gji/article-lookup/doi/10.1111/j.1365-246X.2004.02323.x},
	doi = {10.1111/j.1365-246X.2004.02323.x},
	abstract = {This article is concerned primarily with the evaluation of the size and location of northern Indian and southern Tibetan earthquakes during the last 200 yr. It draws attention to the problems of assessing intensity of early and more recent earthquakes in a built environment, which is different from that for which the intensity scale has been constructed and to the way in which isoseismals are drawn.},
	pages = {165--206},
	number = {1},
	journaltitle = {Geophysical Journal International},
	author = {Ambraseys, N. N. and Douglas, J.},
	urldate = {2020-08-29},
	date = {2004-10},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Ambraseys and Douglas - 2004 - Magnitude calibration of north Indian earthquakes.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\56KPUV2V\\Ambraseys and Douglas - 2004 - Magnitude calibration of north Indian earthquakes.pdf:application/pdf;Ambraseys and Douglas - 2004 - Magnitude calibration of north Indian earthquakes.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\EL2LR5CF\\Ambraseys and Douglas - 2004 - Magnitude calibration of north Indian earthquakes.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{gitis_analysis_2008,
	title = {Analysis of seismicity in North India},
	volume = {10},
	issn = {1681-1208},
	url = {http://elpub.wdcb.ru/journals/rjes/doi/2008ES000303.html},
	doi = {10.2205/2008ES000303},
	pages = {1--11},
	number = {5},
	journaltitle = {Russ. J. Earth Sci.},
	author = {Gitis, V. G. and Yurkov, E. and Arora, B. and Chabak, S. and Kumar, N. and Baidya, P.},
	urldate = {2020-08-29},
	date = {2008-06-18},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Analysis_of_seismicity_in_North_India (1):C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\7YAJ5QRH\\Analysis_of_seismicity_in_North_India (1).pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{leonard_self-consistent_2014,
	title = {Self-Consistent Earthquake Fault-Scaling Relations: Update and Extension to Stable Continental Strike-Slip Faults},
	volume = {104},
	issn = {0037-1106},
	url = {https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/bssa/article/104/6/2953-2965/331932},
	doi = {10.1785/0120140087},
	shorttitle = {Self-Consistent Earthquake Fault-Scaling Relations},
	abstract = {Using seismic moment (M0)–length (L) data for stable continental region ({SCR}) faults, augmented by data not included in previous studies, this article reassesses and confirms the bilinear scaling relation for the dip-slip faults of Leonard (2010). Furthermore, using the new data, I propose a separate bilinear relation for estimating magnitude from surface rupture length. There are now a small number of {SCR} strike-slip earthquakes for which the fault dimensions have been estimated. I use these to constrain a trilinear scaling relation for this class of fault.},
	pages = {2953--2965},
	number = {6},
	journaltitle = {Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America},
	author = {Leonard, M.},
	urldate = {2020-08-29},
	date = {2014-12-01},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Leonard - 2014 - Self-Consistent Earthquake Fault-Scaling Relations.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\FDG2S7DD\\Leonard - 2014 - Self-Consistent Earthquake Fault-Scaling Relations.pdf:application/pdf;Leonard - 2014 - Self-Consistent Earthquake Fault-Scaling Relations.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\QJFULXMU\\Leonard - 2014 - Self-Consistent Earthquake Fault-Scaling Relations.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{kumar_estimation_2014,
	title = {Estimation of Q p and Q s of Kinnaur Himalaya},
	volume = {18},
	issn = {1383-4649, 1573-157X},
	url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10950-013-9399-7},
	doi = {10.1007/s10950-013-9399-7},
	pages = {47--59},
	number = {1},
	journaltitle = {J Seismol},
	author = {Kumar, Naresh and Mate, Shonkholen and Mukhopadhyay, Sagarika},
	urldate = {2020-08-29},
	date = {2014-01},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Kumar et al. - 2014 - Estimation of Q p and Q s of Kinnaur Himalaya.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\HJY98WEI\\Kumar et al. - 2014 - Estimation of Q p and Q s of Kinnaur Himalaya.pdf:application/pdf;Kumar et al. - 2014 - Estimation of Q p and Q s of Kinnaur Himalaya.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\SU376G6F\\Kumar et al. - 2014 - Estimation of Q p and Q s of Kinnaur Himalaya.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{kumar_delineation_2019,
	title = {Delineation of lithosphere structure and characterization of the Moho geometry under the Himalaya–Karakoram–Tibet collision zone using surface-wave tomography},
	volume = {481},
	rights = {All rights reserved},
	issn = {0305-8719, 2041-4927},
	url = {http://sp.lyellcollection.org/lookup/doi/10.1144/SP481-2017-172},
	doi = {10.1144/SP481-2017-172},
	abstract = {Group velocities for a period range of 6–60 s for the fundamental mode of the Rayleigh wave passing across the Himalaya–Karakoram–Tibet orogen are used to delineate the structure of the upper lithosphere using the data from 35 broadband seismic stations. 2D tomography velocity maps of group velocities were obtained at grids of 1° separation. Redefined local dispersion curves are inverted non-linearly to obtain 1D velocity models and to construct a 3D image of the S-wave structure down to a depth of 90 km.},
	pages = {19--40},
	number = {1},
	journaltitle = {Geological Society, London, Special Publications},
	author = {Kumar, Naresh and Aoudia, A. and Guidarelli, M. and Babu, Vivek G and Hazarika, Devajit and Yadav, D. K.},
	urldate = {2020-08-29},
	date = {2019},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Kumar et al. - 2019 - Delineation of lithosphere structure and character.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\NZ2KNCVH\\Published SP481-2017-172.full.pdf:application/pdf;SP481-2017-172.full.pdf:D\:\\Career\\Personal\\Research publications\\GSL\\SP481-2017-172.full.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{dutilleul_multifrequential_2015,
	title = {Multifrequential periodogram analysis of earthquake occurrence: An alternative approach to the Schuster spectrum, with two examples in central California},
	volume = {120},
	issn = {2169-9313, 2169-9356},
	url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/2015JB012467},
	doi = {10.1002/2015JB012467},
	shorttitle = {Multifrequential periodogram analysis of earthquake occurrence},
	abstract = {Periodic earthquake occurrences may reflect links with semidiurnal to multiyear tides, seasonal hydrological loads, and {\textasciitilde}14 month pole tide forcing. The Schuster spectrum is a recent extension of Schuster’s traditional test for periodicity analysis in seismology. We present an alternative approach: the multifrequential periodogram analysis ({MFPA}), performed on time series of monthly earthquake numbers. We explore if seismicity in two central California regions, the Central San Andreas Fault near Parkfield ({CSAF}-{PKD}) and the Sierra Nevada-Eastern California Shear Zone ({SN}-{ECSZ}), exhibits periodic behavior at periods of 2 months to several years. Original and declustered catalogs spanning up to 26 years were analyzed with both methods. For {CSAF}-{PKD}, the {MFPA} resolves {\textasciitilde}1 year periodicities, with additional statistically significant periods of {\textasciitilde}6 and {\textasciitilde}4 months; for {SN}-{ECSZ}, it finds a strong {\textasciitilde}14 month periodic component. Unlike the Schuster spectrum, the {MFPA} has an exact modified statistic at non-Fourier frequencies. Informed by the {MFPA} period estimates, trigonometric models with periods of 12, 6, and 4 months (Model 1) and 14.24 and 12 months (Model 2) were fitted to time series of earthquake numbers. For {CSAF}-{PKD}, Model 1 shows a peak annual earthquake occurrence during August-November and a secondary peak in April. Similar peaks, or troughs, are found in annual and semiannual components of pole tide and tide-induced stress model time series and fault normal-stress reduction from seasonal hydrological unloading. For {SN}-{ECSZ}, the dominant {\textasciitilde}14 month periodicity prevents regular annual peaking, and Model 2 provides a better fit (ΔRa2djusted: 2.4\%). This new {MFPA} application resolves several periodicities in earthquake catalogs that reveal external periodic forcing.},
	pages = {8494--8515},
	number = {12},
	journaltitle = {J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth},
	author = {Dutilleul, Pierre and Johnson, Christopher W. and Bürgmann, Roland and Wan, Yongge and Shen, Zheng‐Kang},
	urldate = {2020-08-29},
	date = {2015-12},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Dutilleul et al. - 2015 - Multifrequential periodogram analysis of earthquak.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\RUVY4Z6J\\Dutilleul et al. - 2015 - Multifrequential periodogram analysis of earthquak.pdf:application/pdf;Dutilleul et al. - 2015 - Multifrequential periodogram analysis of earthquak.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\RLZHEPCB\\Dutilleul et al. - 2015 - Multifrequential periodogram analysis of earthquak.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{kumar_stress_2013,
	title = {Stress drop and its relation to tectonic and structural elements for the meizoseismal region of great 1905 Kangra earthquake of the {NW} Himalaya},
	volume = {69},
	issn = {0921-030X, 1573-0840},
	url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11069-013-0793-9},
	doi = {10.1007/s11069-013-0793-9},
	abstract = {Investigations of micro- and low-magnitude earthquakes in the Kangra-Chamba region of the {NW} Himalaya were performed to evaluate the relationship between earthquake source, seismicity, stress drop, tectonics, and structure. The seismic events were recorded by a dense local network of 21 permanent/temporary stations during 2004–2005. The earthquake source parameters using spectral analysis were calculated for refined epicenters obtained by Local Earthquake Tomography method. We applied two approaches of spectral analysis for earthquake data and the box-counting fractal dimension for structural elements in order to understand the seismogenesis of the region properly. These two methods giving interdependable results were used for the study area that extends from latitude 31.5°N–33.5°N and longitude 75.5°E–77.5°E in the epicenter zone of devastating 1905 Kangra earthquake. The seismic moment of these earthquakes (1.5 B Mw B 4.8) is between 1.21E ? 18 dyne-cm and 1.44E ? 23 dyne-cm causing circular deformation of radius in the range 0.12–1.15 km based on Brune’s circular model. The study reveals that low value for the capacity fractal dimension (D0 of 0.678) and seismically intense clustering of 135 earthquakes with low stress drops generally below 10 bar but up to 26 bar. Evaluated low stress drop of small size earthquakes and low D0 of structural elements has led to the identification of nature of brittleness of the crust and proneness to high strain accumulation that indicates the presence of an asperity/barrier in the fault zones. The variation of b value and 3D seismic velocities supports the presence of asperity zone.},
	pages = {2021--2038},
	number = {3},
	journaltitle = {Nat Hazards},
	author = {Kumar, Naresh and Yadav, Dilip K. and Mondal, S. K. and Roy, P. N. S.},
	urldate = {2020-08-29},
	date = {2013-12},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Kumar et al. - 2013 - Stress drop and its relation to tectonic and struc.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\5U8NBXZ8\\Kumar et al. - 2013 - Stress drop and its relation to tectonic and struc.pdf:application/pdf;Kumar et al. - 2013 - Stress drop and its relation to tectonic and struc.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\U8KVR99A\\Kumar et al. - 2013 - Stress drop and its relation to tectonic and struc.pdf:application/pdf;Kumar et al. - 2013 - Stress drop and its relation to tectonic and struc.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\D7EJKT9K\\Kumar et al. - 2013 - Stress drop and its relation to tectonic and struc.pdf:application/pdf;Kumar et al. - 2013 - Stress drop and its relation to tectonic and struc.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\L77PWUCD\\Kumar et al. - 2013 - Stress drop and its relation to tectonic and struc.pdf:application/pdf;Kumar et al. - 2013 - Stress drop and its relation to tectonic and struc.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\7CFFCWJ5\\Kumar et al. - 2013 - Stress drop and its relation to tectonic and struc.pdf:application/pdf;Kumar et al. - 2013 - Stress drop and its relation to tectonic and struc.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\2A5VNGU3\\Kumar et al. - 2013 - Stress drop and its relation to tectonic and struc.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{kumar_seismogenesis_2013,
	title = {Seismogenesis of clustered seismicity beneath the Kangra–Chamba sector of northwest Himalaya: Constraints from 3D local earthquake tomography},
	volume = {62},
	issn = {13679120},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1367912012004981},
	doi = {10.1016/j.jseaes.2012.11.012},
	shorttitle = {Seismogenesis of clustered seismicity beneath the Kangra–Chamba sector of northwest Himalaya},
	abstract = {To investigate subsurface structure and seismogenic layers, 3D velocity inversion was carried out in the source zone of 1905 Kangra earthquake (M8.0) in the northwestern Himalaya. P-wave and S-wave phase data of 159 earthquakes recorded by a network of 21 stations were used for this purpose. Inverted velocity tomograms up to a depth range of 18 km show significant variations of 14\% in Vp and Vs and 6\% in the Vp/Vs across the major tectonic zones in the region. Synthesis of seismicity pattern, velocity structure, distinctive focal mechanisms coupled with nature of stress distribution allows mapping of three different source regions that control regional seismotectonics. Accumulating strains are partly consumed by sliding of Chamba Nappe to the southwest through reverse-fault movements along Chamba/Panjal/Main Boundary Thrusts. This coupled with normal-fault type displacements along Chenab Normal Fault in the north account for low magnitude widespread seismicity in upper 8–10 km of the crust. At intermediate depths from 8 to 15 km, adjusting to residual compressive stresses, the detachment or lower end of the {MBT} slips to produce thrust dominated seismicity. Nucleation of secondary stresses in local {NE}–{SW} oriented structure interacts in complex manner with regional stresses to generate normal type earthquakes below the plane of detachment and therefore three seismic regimes at different depths produce intense seismicity in a block of 30 Â 30 km2 centered {NE} to the epicenter of Kangra earthquake.},
	pages = {638--646},
	journaltitle = {Journal of Asian Earth Sciences},
	author = {Kumar, Naresh and Arora, B.R. and Mukhopadhyay, Sagarika and Yadav, D.K.},
	urldate = {2020-08-29},
	date = {2013-01},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Kumar et al. - 2013 - Seismogenesis of clustered seismicity beneath the .pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\CGFAALTX\\Kumar et al. - 2013 - Seismogenesis of clustered seismicity beneath the .pdf:application/pdf;Kumar et al. - 2013 - Seismogenesis of clustered seismicity beneath the .pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\6BUQY4WX\\Kumar et al. - 2013 - Seismogenesis of clustered seismicity beneath the .pdf:application/pdf;Kumar et al. - 2013 - Seismogenesis of clustered seismicity beneath the .pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\P5QL8PJS\\Kumar et al. - 2013 - Seismogenesis of clustered seismicity beneath the .pdf:application/pdf;Kumar et al. - 2013 - Seismogenesis of clustered seismicity beneath the .pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\GI5G93PH\\Kumar et al. - 2013 - Seismogenesis of clustered seismicity beneath the .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{kumar_seismotectonic_2009,
	title = {Seismotectonic Model of the Kangra-Chamba Sector of Northwest Himalaya: Constraints from Joint Hypocenter Determination and Focal Mechanism},
	volume = {99},
	issn = {0037-1106},
	url = {https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/bssa/article/99/1/95-109/342117},
	doi = {10.1785/0120080220},
	shorttitle = {Seismotectonic Model of the Kangra-Chamba Sector of Northwest Himalaya},
	abstract = {The existing seismological network in the Kangra–Chamba sector has been upgraded with 12 three-component digital seismometers to obtain new insight on the nature and sources of continued clustered seismicity in this part of northwest Himalaya. A combination of travel-time-distance plots and travel-time inversion of P and S phases have been used to derive a 1D velocity model for the region. The minimum 1D velocity model divides the average 44 km thick crust into four layers. The top ∼10 km thick layer represents the metamorphosed sediments of the Chamba nappe that dominates the surface geology of the study area. Suggestion of a thin low-velocity layer at 15 km depth possibly marks the detachment zone separating the downgoing Indian plate from the overriding wedge. The improved locations of epicenters show close clustering of seismic events immediately northeast of the epicenter of the 1905 Kangra earthquake, while away from this zone the seismicity in the Chamba sector has more even distribution. In the later sector, space-depth distribution of hypocenters suggests that strain resulting from the ongoing collision of the Indian plate with Asia is being consumed by reverse-fault movement on the Chamba thrust. The clustered seismicity in the Kangra sector has three distinct source regions and mechanisms: (1) southward displacement of the thick Chamba nappe sheet over the Panjal imbricate zone along the Panjal thrust accounts for the seismicity at shallow depths of less than 7 km, (2) the nucleation of strains where the northeast dipping main boundary thrust ({MBT}) merges with the detachment plane produces focused seismicity near this junction, and (3) the seismicity in a small pocket below the plane of detachment appears to be a consequence of stresses generated at the base of the northeast dipping detachment plane by the transverse structure.},
	pages = {95--109},
	number = {1},
	journaltitle = {Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America},
	author = {Kumar, Naresh and Sharma, J. and Arora, B. R. and Mukhopadhyay, S.},
	urldate = {2020-08-29},
	date = {2009-02-01},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Kumar et al. - 2009 - Seismotectonic Model of the Kangra-Chamba Sector o.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\QWI2LCIW\\Kumar et al. - 2009 - Seismotectonic Model of the Kangra-Chamba Sector o.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{rajendran_seismotectonic_2017,
	title = {Seismotectonic perspectives on the Himalayan arc and contiguous areas: Inferences from past and recent earthquakes},
	volume = {173},
	issn = {00128252},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0012825217300715},
	doi = {10.1016/j.earscirev.2017.08.003},
	shorttitle = {Seismotectonic perspectives on the Himalayan arc and contiguous areas},
	abstract = {Spread over countries including Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan, and China, the Himalayan mountain chain, the most spectacular result of the Indo-Eurasian plate collision, is a locus of destructive earthquakes. Past earthquakes from this region have impacted vast swathes of frontal Himalaya and stretches of alluvial plains south of the range front. Risk from future earthquakes has increased, considering the burgeoning population and an everexpanding built-environment in the region. While considerable ambiguities exist on the locations, ruptures, and sizes of the earthquakes during the first half of the last millennium (1255, 1344, and 1505 {CE}), those during the latter half (1803 and 1833 {CE}) are quite well-documented, all reported from the central Himalayan segment comprising eastern Nepal, Kumaun, and Garhwal. While dormancy prevailed in the central segment in the intervening period, the Himalayan arc elsewhere witnessed three large/great earthquakes in the last century, namely, 1905 Kangra (Mw 7.8), 1934 Bihar-Nepal (Mw 8.2), and 1950 Upper Assam (Mw 8.6), the last one being the largest intra-continental earthquake in the recorded history. The April 25, Gorkha (Nepal) earthquake (Mw 7.8) located in the central seismic gap terminated the period of low-level seismic productivity that followed the 1950 event. The Himalayan arc and its contiguous regions are now being investigated using various tools including paleoseismology. Quite understandably, the interpretations and tectonic models do not always converge, given the diverse quality and type of data. The data from variously sized modern-day earthquakes sourced in the diverse structural settings of the Himalaya provide better constraints on the source properties of the Himalayan earthquakes. The source complexity and diversity is a striking point of interest for the post-1950 events, and at least some of them seem to deviate from the generally accepted model of great ruptures on a shallow dipping detachment. A prime example of such anomalies is the 2005 Kashmir earthquake (Mw 7.6) sourced on an out-ofsequence thrust. The sources of the 1991 Uttarkashi (Mw 6.8), 1999 Chamoli (Mw 6.6), and the 2015 Gorkha (Nepal) (Mw 7.8) earthquakes - all in the central Himalayan segment - are attributed to the ramp-flat on the down-dip part of the Main Himalayan Thrust ({MHT}). In contrast, the 2011 Sikkim (Mw 6.9) and the 2016 Imphal (Mw 6.7) earthquakes are intraplate events sourced within the subducting slab. Source models of modern-day earthquakes (1991–2016) discussed in this paper bring out this plurality of mechanisms expected of a complex subduction-cum-collisional boundary. This review presents the status of current seismotectonic understanding of the Himalaya from the analyses of significant earthquakes, from the past as well as recent events with a focus on the central Himalayan segment.},
	pages = {1--30},
	journaltitle = {Earth-Science Reviews},
	author = {Rajendran, Kusala and Parameswaran, Revathy M. and Rajendran, C.P.},
	urldate = {2020-08-29},
	date = {2017-10},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Rajendran et al. - 2017 - Seismotectonic perspectives on the Himalayan arc a.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\Q8A9TCUV\\Rajendran et al. - 2017 - Seismotectonic perspectives on the Himalayan arc a.pdf:application/pdf;Rajendran et al. - 2017 - Seismotectonic perspectives on the Himalayan arc a.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\BHIX4T53\\Rajendran et al. - 2017 - Seismotectonic perspectives on the Himalayan arc a.pdf:application/pdf;Rajendran et al. - 2017 - Seismotectonic perspectives on the Himalayan arc a.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\F3FJJ8ZL\\Rajendran et al. - 2017 - Seismotectonic perspectives on the Himalayan arc a.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{singh_earthquake_2018,
	title = {Earthquake swarm of Himachal Pradesh in northwest Himalaya and its seismotectonic implications},
	volume = {275},
	issn = {00319201},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0031920117303138},
	doi = {10.1016/j.pepi.2018.01.002},
	abstract = {On the 27th of August 2016, a seismic swarm activity consisting of 58 earthquakes (1.5 ≤ {ML} ≤ 4.4), which occurred in Rampur area of the Kullu-Rampur Tectonic window of Himachal Pradesh in Northwest Himalaya. The epicenters of these events are located at the northern front of the Berinag Thrust in its hanging wall. To better understand the seismotectonics of this region, we analyzed the spectral source parameters and source mechanism of this swam activity. Spectral analysis shows the low stress drop values (from 0.05 to 28.9 bars), suggesting that the upper crust has low strength to withstand accumulated strain energy in this region. The Moment Tensor solutions of 12 earthquakes (≥2.7ML) obtained by waveform inversion yield the shallow centroid depths between 5 and 10 km. All these events are of dominantly thrust fault mechanism having an average dip angle of ∼30°. The P-axes and the maximum horizontal compressive stresses are {NE}-{SW} oriented; the relative motion of the Indian Plate. The present study reveals that the swarm activity in the Himachal region of {NW} Himalaya is related to the out-of-sequence thrusting or the Lesser Himalayan Duplex system.},
	pages = {44--55},
	journaltitle = {Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors},
	author = {Singh, Rakesh and Prasath, R. Arun and Paul, Ajay and Kumar, Naresh},
	urldate = {2020-08-29},
	date = {2018-02},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Singh et al. - 2018 - Earthquake swarm of Himachal Pradesh in northwest .pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\7T8QEH7P\\Singh et al. - 2018 - Earthquake swarm of Himachal Pradesh in northwest .pdf:application/pdf;Singh et al. - 2018 - Earthquake swarm of Himachal Pradesh in northwest .pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\FSKZRQH8\\Singh et al. - 2018 - Earthquake swarm of Himachal Pradesh in northwest .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{mukherjee_tectonics_2015,
	title = {Tectonics of the Himalaya},
	volume = {412},
	issn = {0305-8719, 2041-4927},
	doi = {https://doi.org/10.1144/SP412},
	number = {1},
	journaltitle = {Geological Society, London, Special Publications},
	author = {Mukherjee, S. and Carosi, R. and Beek, P. A. van der and Mukherjee, B. K. and Robinson, D. M.},
	date = {2015-01-01},
	langid = {english},
}

@article{yadav_crustal_2022,
	title = {Crustal velocity structure and seismotectonics of the Kinnaur region of northwest Himalaya: New constraints based on recent micro-earthquake data},
	volume = {224},
	rights = {All rights reserved},
	issn = {13679120},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1367912021003436},
	doi = {10.1016/j.jseaes.2021.105005},
	shorttitle = {Crustal velocity structure and seismotectonics of the Kinnaur region of northwest Himalaya},
	pages = {105005},
	journaltitle = {Journal of Asian Earth Sciences},
	author = {Yadav, Dhirendra N. and Kumar, Naresh and Babu, Vivek G and Kumari, Richa and Pal, Sanjit K.},
	urldate = {2022-09-24},
	date = {2022-02},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Yadav et al. - 2022 - Crustal velocity structure and seismotectonics of .pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\8T4IFZHF\\Yadav et al. - 2022 - Crustal velocity structure and seismotectonics of .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{delvaux_african_2010,
	title = {African stress pattern from formal inversion of focal mechanism data},
	volume = {482},
	issn = {00401951},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0040195109002893},
	doi = {10.1016/j.tecto.2009.05.009},
	abstract = {The kinematic models and the associated orientation of extensional stress of the East African Rift System have been subjected to much debate since a long time. In the past decades, the proposed models relied on the interpretation of the overall rift geometry, geological fault-slip data and the few focal mechanisms available. These models generally suffer of a poor time control and an underestimation of the possible changes in the stress field and geodynamic regime with time and space. In the recent years, there has been a significant increase in the number of focal mechanisms available for the entire rift system, and it is now possible to estimate the present-day stress field in relative detail based on seismotectonic data alone.},
	pages = {105--128},
	number = {1},
	journaltitle = {Tectonophysics},
	author = {Delvaux, Damien and Barth, Andreas},
	urldate = {2023-01-12},
	date = {2010-02},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Delvaux and Barth - 2010 - African stress pattern from formal inversion of fo.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\Y9G5Z9GQ\\Delvaux and Barth - 2010 - African stress pattern from formal inversion of fo.pdf:application/pdf;Delvaux and Barth - 2010 - African stress pattern from formal inversion of fo.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\JJHSTZFJ\\Delvaux and Barth - 2010 - African stress pattern from formal inversion of fo.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{kanna_micro-seismicity_2018,
	title = {Micro-seismicity and seismotectonic study in Western Himalaya–Ladakh-Karakoram using local broadband seismic data},
	volume = {726},
	issn = {00401951},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0040195118300441},
	doi = {10.1016/j.tecto.2018.01.032},
	abstract = {We document the seismic activity and fault plane solutions ({FPSs}) in the Western Himalaya, Ladakh and Karakoram using data from 16 broadband seismographs operated during June 2002 to December 2003. We locate 206 earthquakes with a local magnitude in the range of 1.5 to 4.9 and calculate {FPSs} of 19 selected earthquakes based on moment tensor solutions. The earthquakes are distributed throughout the study region and indicate active tectonics in this region. The observed seismicity pattern is quite different than a well-defined pattern of seismicity, along the Main Central Thrust zone, in the eastern side of the study region (i.e., Kumaon-Garhwal Himalaya). In the Himalaya region, the earthquakes are distributed in the crust and upper mantle, whereas in the Ladakh-Karakoram area the earthquakes are mostly confined up to crustal depths. The fault plane solutions show a mixture of thrust, normal and strike-slip type mechanisms, which are well corroborated with the known faults/tectonics of the region. The normal fault earthquakes are observed along the Southern Tibet Detachment, Zanskar Shear Zone, Tso-Morari dome, and Kaurik-Chango fault; and suggest E-W extension tectonics in the Higher and Tethys Himalaya. The earthquakes of thrust mechanism with the left-lateral strike-slip component are seen along the Kistwar fault. The right-lateral strike-slip faulting with thrust component along the bending of the Main Boundary Thrust and Main Central Thrust shows the transpressional tectonics in this part of the Himalaya. The observed earthquakes with right-lateral strike-slip faulting indicate seismically active nature of the Karakoram fault.},
	pages = {100--109},
	journaltitle = {Tectonophysics},
	author = {Kanna, Nagaraju and Gupta, Sandeep and Prakasam, K.S.},
	urldate = {2023-01-12},
	date = {2018-02},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Kanna et al. - 2018 - Micro-seismicity and seismotectonic study in Weste.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\4S8CE732\\Kanna et al. - 2018 - Micro-seismicity and seismotectonic study in Weste.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{igwe_application_2016,
	title = {Application of paleostress analysis for the identification of potential instability precursors within the Benue Trough Nigeria},
	volume = {3},
	issn = {2197-8670},
	url = {http://geoenvironmental-disasters.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40677-016-0051-z},
	doi = {10.1186/s40677-016-0051-z},
	abstract = {Background: Structures such as faults, joints and fractures of diverse patterns have acted as precursors of several slope instability cases within the Benue Trough Nigeria. In some cases, the structures by their nature weakened and also created avenues that streams took advantage to further destabilize the rock slopes. In other cases, structure orientation played significant roles in the mobility and eventual runout distance of debris flow and avalanches in the region. Detailed field-based structural, fracture and paleostress analyses were therefore carried out to determine the fractural patterns that correlate to reported instability and landslide cases in the region; and to produce models that reveal areas with heightened risk.
Results: Three fracture sets were isolated from analysis of fracture orientations and field relationships: Pre-folding ({JT}), Syn-Folding ({JS}) and Post Folding ({JC}) fracture systems. Paleostress analysis carried out on these fracture systems using the {TENSOR}™ software tool yielded three paleostress tensors corresponding to transtensional stress tensor with {ENE}-{WSW} direction of maximum extension ({SHMIN}), oblique compressive (transpressional) tensor with {NW}-{SE} direction of maximum shortening ({SHMAX}), and transtensional tensor with {WNW}-{ESE} direction of maximum extension ({SHMIN}).
Conclusion: These tensors are related to the prevailing plate tectonic stress regimes affecting the entire Benue trough and the West and Central African Rift System ({WCARS}). Our pre- and post-tectonic models have revealed the reasons for instability and the likely places where future failures may be located. This is the first such analyses in the region and it is hoped that the results can broaden the use and applicability of paleostresses in failure-prone terrains for future risk and disaster reduction/assessment within the Trough and in other areas prone to structurecontrolled landslides disaster.},
	pages = {17},
	number = {1},
	journaltitle = {Geoenviron Disasters},
	author = {Igwe, Ogbonnaya and Okonkwo, Ikenna Anthony},
	urldate = {2023-01-12},
	date = {2016-12},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Igwe and Okonkwo - 2016 - Application of paleostress analysis for the identi.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\WRMKKYTB\\Igwe and Okonkwo - 2016 - Application of paleostress analysis for the identi.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{kapetanidis_contemporary_2019,
	title = {Contemporary crustal stress of the Greek region deduced from earthquake focal mechanisms},
	volume = {123},
	issn = {02643707},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S026437071830098X},
	doi = {10.1016/j.jog.2018.11.004},
	pages = {55--82},
	journaltitle = {Journal of Geodynamics},
	author = {Kapetanidis, V. and Kassaras, I.},
	urldate = {2023-01-12},
	date = {2019-01},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Kapetanidis and Kassaras - 2019 - Contemporary crustal stress of the Greek region de.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\7UJIQR8S\\Kapetanidis and Kassaras - 2019 - Contemporary crustal stress of the Greek region de.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{ali_tectonic_2021,
	title = {Tectonic stress regime and stress patterns from the inversion of earthquake focal mechanisms in {NW} Himalaya and surrounding regions},
	volume = {33},
	issn = {10183647},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1018364721000124},
	doi = {10.1016/j.jksus.2021.101351},
	abstract = {Because the impact of earthquake effects can extend over great distances from their origin, stress field inversion was performed for 440 earthquake focal mechanisms from the northwest Himalayas and surrounding regions compiled from the data bulletins of international seismological institutions. Earthquakes between November 1976 and April 2019 in the depth range of 10–258 km with moment magnitudes between 4.6 and 7.9 were selected. High-quality solutions were inverted to locate the best fitting stress tensor. Most of the earthquake fault plane solutions indicated thrust faulting, confirming northward underthrusting of the Indian plate along the Main Boundary Thrust and the Main Central Thrust systems and eastward underthrusting along the Burmese Arc. The focal mechanisms indicated right-lateral motion along the Karakoram Fault and left-lateral motion along the Kirthar–Sulaiman Range, which agrees with the expected sense of the lateral mass movement of the continental collision model. The present-day stress regimes obtained from the earthquake focal mechanism inversions indicated a predominantly compressional stress regime represented by {NNE}–{SSW} trending normal fault mechanisms in northwest India and Nepal and {NNW}–{SSE} trending normal fault mechanisms in Pakistan and Hindukush. These are consistent with the direction of the ongoing India–Eurasia plate collision and the extensional stress of {WNW}–{ESE} trending thrust faulting in the Xizang and Kashmir regions. These tectonic regimes connected with the major tectonic affecting the Arabian Peninsula. Accordingly, it is highly recommended to assess the earthquake hazards of the major cities in the eastern countries of Arabian Peninsula as Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates and Oman.},
	pages = {101351},
	number = {2},
	journaltitle = {Journal of King Saud University - Science},
	author = {Ali, Sherif M. and Abdelrahman, Kamal and Al-Otaibi, Naif},
	urldate = {2023-01-12},
	date = {2021-03},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Ali et al. - 2021 - Tectonic stress regime and stress patterns from th.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\6CXQLTCV\\Ali et al. - 2021 - Tectonic stress regime and stress patterns from th.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{powali_reappraisal_2020,
	title = {A reappraisal of the 2005 Kashmir (M 7.6) earthquake and its aftershocks: Seismotectonics of {NW} Himalaya},
	volume = {789},
	issn = {00401951},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0040195120301840},
	doi = {10.1016/j.tecto.2020.228501},
	shorttitle = {A reappraisal of the 2005 Kashmir (M 7.6) earthquake and its aftershocks},
	pages = {228501},
	journaltitle = {Tectonophysics},
	author = {Powali, Debarchan and Sharma, Shubham and Mandal, Riddhi and Mitra, Supriyo},
	urldate = {2023-01-12},
	date = {2020-08},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Powali et al. - 2020 - A reappraisal of the 2005 Kashmir (M 7.6) earthqua.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\FEEG5CEV\\Powali et al. - 2020 - A reappraisal of the 2005 Kashmir (M 7.6) earthqua.pdf:application/pdf;Powali et al. - 2020 - A reappraisal of the 2005 Kashmir (M 7.6) earthqua.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\IMIMUMDW\\Powali et al. - 2020 - A reappraisal of the 2005 Kashmir (M 7.6) earthqua.pdf:application/pdf;Powali et al. - 2020 - A reappraisal of the 2005 Kashmir (M 7.6) earthqua.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\DH2W9JJS\\Powali et al. - 2020 - A reappraisal of the 2005 Kashmir (M 7.6) earthqua.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{guiraud_characterization_1989,
	title = {Characterization of various types of deformation and their corresponding deviator+ stress tensors using microfault analysis},
	doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/0040-1951(89)90277-1},
	abstract = {Guiraud, M., Laborde, 0. and Philip, H., 1989. Characterization of various types of deformation and their corresponding deviatoric stress tensors using microfault analysis. Tectonophysics, 170: 289-316.},
	pages = {289--316},
	author = {Guiraud, M and Philip, H},
	date = {1989},
	langid = {english},
	keywords = {{FMS}, {STI}, stress regime},
	file = {Guiraud and Philip - Characterization of various types of deformation a.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\B97TKS8U\\Guiraud and Philip - Characterization of various types of deformation a.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{soh_tectonic_2018,
	title = {Tectonic stress orientations and magnitudes, and friction of faults, deduced from earthquake focal mechanism inversions over the Korean Peninsula},
	volume = {213},
	issn = {0956-540X, 1365-246X},
	url = {https://academic.oup.com/gji/article/213/2/1360/4862475},
	doi = {10.1093/gji/ggy061},
	abstract = {We characterize the present-day stress state in and around the Korean Peninsula using formal inversions of earthquake focal mechanisms. Two different methods are used to select preferred fault planes in the double-couple focal mechanism solutions: one that minimizes average misfit angle and the other choosing faults with higher instability. We invert selected sets of fault planes for estimating the principal stresses at regularly spaced grid points, using a circular-area data-binning method, where the bin radius is optimized to yield the best possible stress inversion results based on the World Stress Map quality ranking scheme. The inversions using the two methods yield well constrained and fairly comparable results, which indicate that the prevailing stress regime is strike-slip, and the maximum horizontal principal stress ({SHmax}) is oriented {ENE}–{WSW} throughout the study region. Although the orientation of the stresses is consistent across the peninsula, the relative stress magnitude parameter (R-value) varies significantly, from 0.22 in the northwest to 0.89 in the southeast. Based on our knowledge of the R-values and stress regime, and using a value for vertical stress (Sv) estimated from the overburden weight of rock, together with a value for the maximum differential stress (based on the Coulomb friction of faults optimally oriented for slip), we estimate the magnitudes of the two horizontal principal stresses. The horizontal stress magnitudes increase from west to east such that {SHmax}/Sv ratio rises from 1.5 to 2.4, and the Shmin/Sv ratio from 0.6 to 0.8. The variation in the magnitudes of the tectonic stresses appears to be related to differences in the rigidity of crustal rocks. Using the complete stress tensors, including both orientations and magnitudes, we assess the possible ranges of frictional coefficients for different types of faults. We show that normal and reverse faults have lower frictional coefficients than strike-slip faults, suggesting that the former types of faults can be activated under a strike-slip stress regime. Our observations of the seismicity, with normal faulting concentrated offshore to the northwest and reverse faulting focused offshore to the east, are compatible with the results of our estimates of stress magnitudes.},
	pages = {1360--1373},
	number = {2},
	journaltitle = {Geophysical Journal International},
	author = {Soh, Inho and Chang, Chandong and Lee, Junhyung and Hong, Tae-Kyung and Park, Eui-Seob},
	urldate = {2023-01-12},
	date = {2018-05-01},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Full Text:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\4T8DUNBY\\Soh et al. - 2018 - Tectonic stress orientations and magnitudes, and f.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{biswal_velocity_2022,
	title = {Velocity Structure and Deep Earthquakes beneath the Kinnaur, {NW} Himalaya: Constraints from Relocated Seismicity and Moment Tensor Analysis},
	volume = {2021},
	issn = {1947-4253, 1941-8264},
	url = {https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/lithosphere/article/2021/Special%206/2834594/611069/Velocity-Structure-and-Deep-Earthquakes-beneath},
	doi = {10.2113/2022/2834594},
	shorttitle = {Velocity Structure and Deep Earthquakes beneath the Kinnaur, {NW} Himalaya},
	abstract = {Abstract
            The optimum 1D velocity model is calculated for the Kinnaur sector of the {NW} Himalaya utilizing the arrival time information of the local earthquakes (137 no.) recorded with 12 broadband seismic network within the azimuthal gap of ≤180°. This optimum 1D velocity model is a five-layer model and ranges from the surface to 90 km in the shallow mantle. P velocity varies from 5.5 km/s to 8.6 km/s in the crust and upper mantle, and S-wave velocity varies between 3.2 km/s and 4.9 km/s for the same range. When we relocated the earthquakes with the Joint Hypocenter Determination program incorporating the optimum 1D velocity model, it resulted in a lower {RMS} residual error of 0.23 s for the hypocenter locations compared to initial hypo71 locations. A total of 1274 P and 1272 S arrival times were utilized to compute station delays. We observed positive variations in P-station delays from -0.19 s below the {PULG} station to 0.11 s below the {SRHN} station. Similarly, for S-station delays, we observed negative delays at each individual site from -0.65 s at {LOSR} station to -0.16 s at the {SRHN} station. This large variation in P- and S-station delays corresponds to the 3D nature of the subsurface below the Kinnaur Himalaya. The relocated seismicity is clustered along the {STD} fault at sub-Moho and Moho depths ranging between 40 km and 80 km. The seismicity distribution aligned across the strike of the {STD} and along the strike of the Kaurik-Chango fault ({KCF}) can be attributed to the cross-fault interactions of the {KCF} and the {STD} fault in the area. We also observed bimodal depth distribution of seismicity in the Higher and Tethys Himalayas. The occurrence of earthquakes down to a depth of {\textasciitilde}0-40 km and 50-80 km in the study area can be interpreted in terms of stress contribution from interseismic stress loading associated with the India-Eurasia collision tectonics. The presence of hypocentres in the shallow mantle at 120 km depth highlights the strength of the mantle, which seems to be deforming in a brittle manner below the region. The computed focal mechanisms exhibit generally the flexing of the Indian plate below the Lesser Himalaya with shear parallel to the strike of the {MCT} and extension orthogonal to it. This study shows deformation over the entire crust and shallow upper mantle levels, with differential stress conditions. Thus, we can consider the crust and the shallow upper mantle down to depths of 120 km to be seismogenic in nature and is capable of producing the microseismicity beneath the Kinnaur Himalaya.},
	pages = {2834594},
	issue = {Special 6},
	journaltitle = {Lithosphere},
	author = {Biswal, Shubhasmita and Kumar, Sushil and Priestley, Keith and Mohanty, W. K. and Parija, Mahesh Prasad},
	editor = {Banerjee, Sayandeep},
	urldate = {2023-01-12},
	date = {2022-02-22},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Biswal et al. - 2022 - Velocity Structure and Deep Earthquakes beneath th.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\WFIGMWHX\\Biswal et al. - 2022 - Velocity Structure and Deep Earthquakes beneath th.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{jadoon_lithospheric_2021,
	title = {Lithospheric Deformation and Active Tectonics of the {NW} Himalayas, Hindukush, and Tibet},
	volume = {2021},
	issn = {1947-4253, 1941-8264},
	url = {https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/lithosphere/article/595190/Lithospheric-Deformation-and-Active-Tectonics-of},
	doi = {10.2113/2021/7866954},
	abstract = {Abstract
            The Himalayan Mountain System ({HMS}) and the Tibetan Plateau ({TP}) represent an active mountain belt, with continent-continent collision. Geological and geophysical (seismological modeling, seismic reflection, and gravity) data is reviewed herein for an overview of the lithospheric deformation and active tectonics of this orogen. Shallow crustal deformation with dominance of thrusting along the margins of the {TP} is interpreted with normal faulting in the center and strike-slip deformation with the lateral translation of blocks, over a wedge of ductile deformation. The seismicity is the linear concentration over the margins of the orogen to {\textasciitilde}20 km depth with exception of the Hindukush and Pamir having seismicity to 300 km depth with an interpretation of sinking Indian and Asian lithospheres. The lithospheric structure is represented by mechanically weak surfaces representing décollement to 15 km depth over the basement, low-velocity zone ({LVZ}) at {\textasciitilde}20 km, the Moho at {\textasciitilde}40-82 km, and the lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary ({LAB}) at 130-200 km depth. The décollement, termed as the Himalayan Mountain Thrust ({HMT}), is inferred to be rooted at the base of the Moho in central Tibet. Along this fault, brittle crustal deformation is interpreted to {\textasciitilde}15-20 km depth, with brittle-ductile deformation along {LVZ} and ductile slip with crustal duplexing along the lower crust. The mantle lithosphere of the Indian plate is inferred as duplicated with the wedging of the Asian mantle lithosphere. The active tectonics of the {TP} is proposed to follow the mechanics of thrusting, similar to the foreland deformation of the mountain belts and accretionary prisms.},
	pages = {7866954},
	number = {1},
	journaltitle = {Lithosphere},
	author = {Jadoon, Ishtiaq A. K. and Ding, Lin and Jadoon, Saif-ur-Rehman K. and Bhatti, Zahid I. and Shah, Syed T. H. and Qasim, Muhammad},
	editor = {Ao, Songjian},
	urldate = {2023-01-12},
	date = {2021-03-05},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Full Text:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\GB7J7CQF\\Jadoon et al. - 2021 - Lithospheric Deformation and Active Tectonics of t.pdf:application/pdf;Jadoon et al. - 2021 - Lithospheric Deformation and Active Tectonics of t.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\76439U4S\\Jadoon et al. - 2021 - Lithospheric Deformation and Active Tectonics of t.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{hazarika_seismotectonics_2017,
	title = {Seismotectonics of the Trans-Himalaya, Eastern Ladakh, India: Constraints from moment tensor solutions of local earthquake data},
	volume = {698},
	issn = {00401951},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S004019511730001X},
	doi = {10.1016/j.tecto.2017.01.001},
	shorttitle = {Seismotectonics of the Trans-Himalaya, Eastern Ladakh, India},
	abstract = {The seismotectonic scenario of the northwest part of the India-Asia collision zone is studied by analyzing the local earthquake data (M {\textasciitilde} 1.4–4.3) recorded by a broadband seismological network consisting of 14 stations. Focal Mechanism Solutions ({FMSs}) of 13 selected earthquakes were computed through waveform inversion of three-component broadband records. Depth distribution of the earthquakes and {FMSs} of local earthquakes obtained by waveform inversion reveal kinematics of the major fault zones present in eastern Ladakh. A most pronounced cluster of seismicity is observed in the Karakoram Fault ({KF}) zone down to a depth of {\textasciitilde}65 km. The {FMSs} reveal a transpressive environment with an inferred strike slip fault plane parallel to the {KF}. It is argued that the {KF} penetrates down to the lower crust and is a manifestation of active underthrusting of Indian lower crust beneath Tibet. Two clusters of microseismicity are observed at a depth range 5–20 km at the northwestern and southeastern fringes of the Tso Morari gneiss dome, which can be correlated to the activities along the Zildat fault and Karzok fault, respectively. The {FMSs} obtained for representative earthquakes show thrust fault solutions for the Karzok fault, and normal fault solutions for the Zildat fault. It is suggested that the Zildat fault is acting as a detachment, facilitating the exhumation of the Tso Morari dome. On the other hand, the Tso Morari dome is underthrusting the Karzok ophiolite at its southern margin along the Karzok fault due to gravity collapse.},
	pages = {38--46},
	journaltitle = {Tectonophysics},
	author = {Hazarika, Devajit and Paul, Arpita and Wadhawan, Monika and Kumar, Naresh and Sen, Koushik and Pant, C.C.},
	urldate = {2023-01-12},
	date = {2017-02},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Hazarika et al. - 2017 - Seismotectonics of the Trans-Himalaya, Eastern Lad.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\CLVJUP82\\Hazarika et al. - 2017 - Seismotectonics of the Trans-Himalaya, Eastern Lad.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{chandra_seismicity_1978,
	title = {Seismicity, earthquake mechanisms and tectonics along the Himalayan mountain range and vicinity},
	volume = {16},
	issn = {00319201},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0031920178900833},
	doi = {10.1016/0031-9201(78)90083-3},
	pages = {109--131},
	number = {2},
	journaltitle = {Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors},
	author = {Chandra, Umesh},
	urldate = {2023-01-12},
	date = {1978-03},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Chandra - 1978 - Seismicity, earthquake mechanisms and tectonics al.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\VPU23UHD\\Chandra - 1978 - Seismicity, earthquake mechanisms and tectonics al.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{prasath_upper_2017,
	title = {Upper crustal stress and seismotectonics of the Garhwal Himalaya using small-to-moderate earthquakes: Implications to the local structures and free fluids},
	volume = {135},
	issn = {13679120},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1367912016304369},
	doi = {10.1016/j.jseaes.2016.12.029},
	shorttitle = {Upper crustal stress and seismotectonics of the Garhwal Himalaya using small-to-moderate earthquakes},
	pages = {198--211},
	journaltitle = {Journal of Asian Earth Sciences},
	author = {Prasath, R. Arun and Paul, Ajay and Singh, Sandeep},
	urldate = {2023-01-12},
	date = {2017-03},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Prasath et al. - 2017 - Upper crustal stress and seismotectonics of the Ga.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\PJJL3FFR\\Prasath et al. - 2017 - Upper crustal stress and seismotectonics of the Ga.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{mahesh_seismotectonics_2015,
	title = {Seismotectonics and crustal stress field in the Kumaon–Garhwal Himalaya},
	volume = {655},
	issn = {00401951},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0040195115002838},
	doi = {10.1016/j.tecto.2015.05.016},
	abstract = {We present fault plane solutions of 94 well located small-to-moderate sized (1.5 ≤ {ML} ≤ 5.4) earthquakes, which occurred in the Kumaon–Garhwal Himalaya during 2005–2008, using P-wave polarity and body wave amplitudes. These earthquakes show a mixture of thrust, normal and strike-slip type mechanism, with a majority of thrust type. Most of the thrust earthquakes occur at a depth of 8–22 km in the Main Central Thrust ({MCT}) zone and the Lower Himalaya. The spatial distribution of these earthquakes suggest that the strain resulting from the ongoing collision of the Indian plate with the Eurasian plate is being consumed by thrust fault movement mainly on the north dipping Munsiari Thrust and south dipping Tons Thrust. The strike-slip earthquakes are mainly observed in the Lower Himalaya as well as around the Munsiari region in the {MCT} zone. The normal earthquakes are also observed in different parts of the Kumaon–Garhwal Himalaya and the Gangetic plain. Their occurrence is attributed to the local structure(s) as well as the flexure of the Indian plate. Stress tensor inversion of the calculated fault plane solutions indicates that the maximum compressive stress in the Gangetic plain is N–S directed and near vertical; whereas in the Kumaon–Garhwal Himalaya, it is near horizontal and {NNE}–{SSW} directed, and correlating with the prevailing stress condition due to northward movement of Indian plate.},
	pages = {124--138},
	journaltitle = {Tectonophysics},
	author = {Mahesh, P. and Gupta, Sandeep and Saikia, Utpal and Rai, S.S.},
	urldate = {2023-01-12},
	date = {2015-08},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Mahesh et al. - 2015 - Seismotectonics and crustal stress field in the Ku.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\TJ42FX4E\\Mahesh et al. - 2015 - Seismotectonics and crustal stress field in the Ku.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{sharma_estimation_2020,
	title = {Estimation of site response functions for the Kumaun-Garhwal region of Himalaya, India},
	volume = {24},
	issn = {1383-4649, 1573-157X},
	url = {https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10950-020-09920-9},
	doi = {10.1007/s10950-020-09920-9},
	pages = {655--678},
	number = {3},
	journaltitle = {J Seismol},
	author = {Sharma, Anjali and Kumar, Dinesh and Paul, Ajay},
	urldate = {2023-01-12},
	date = {2020-06},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Sharma et al. - 2020 - Estimation of site response functions for the Kuma.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\7L9ULCTW\\Sharma et al. - 2020 - Estimation of site response functions for the Kuma.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{hajra_seismotectonics_2021,
	title = {Seismotectonics and stress perspective of the Kumaon Himalaya: A geophysical evidence of a Lesser Himalayan duplex},
	volume = {806},
	issn = {00401951},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0040195121000858},
	doi = {10.1016/j.tecto.2021.228801},
	shorttitle = {Seismotectonics and stress perspective of the Kumaon Himalaya},
	abstract = {The Kumaon Himalaya lies in the central seismic gap and therefore bears the potential to host a great Himalayan earthquake. The seismicity and seismotectonics of the Kumaon Himalaya and the adjacent region have been investigated based on local earthquake data recorded at 18 seismological stations. The seismically active zone of the eastern segment of the Kumaon Himalaya deviates from the usual pattern of seismicity in the Himalayan Seismic Belt of the {NW} Himalaya. Shallow-focus earthquakes in this region largely concentrate in the Chiplakot Crystalline Belt ({CCB}) immediately south of the Vaikrita Thrust. The Focal Mechanism Solutions of 41 earth­ quakes computed through waveform inversion technique along with the solutions of 12 earthquakes obtained from the Global Centroid Moment Tensor solution catalog are used to investigate the kinematics of the region. The study reveals a complex faulting pattern in the Inner Lesser Himalaya. The stress inversion results show a widely distributed stress pattern and low frictional coefficient which are attributed as one of the major causes of clustered seismicity observed in the {CCB}. Careful examination of the fault orientations indicate the presence of a hinterland dipping Lesser Himalayan Duplex over the ramp structure on the Main Himalayan Thrust. The high compressive stress and deformation rate in the {CCB} are partially accommodated by this duplex structure. The large concentration of shallow-focus earthquakes in the {CCB} is the result of the presence of fluid-rich zone as well as strain localization and large stress build-up due to locking in the ramp structure on the Main Himalayan Thrust beneath the {CCB}.},
	pages = {228801},
	journaltitle = {Tectonophysics},
	author = {Hajra, Somak and Hazarika, Devajit and Kumar, Naresh and Pal, Sanjit K. and Roy, P.N.S.},
	urldate = {2023-01-12},
	date = {2021-05},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Hajra et al. - 2021 - Seismotectonics and stress perspective of the Kuma.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\D5PACBE4\\Hajra et al. - 2021 - Seismotectonics and stress perspective of the Kuma.pdf:application/pdf;Hajra et al. - 2021 - Seismotectonics and stress perspective of the Kuma.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\SF3B6NFW\\Hajra et al. - 2021 - Seismotectonics and stress perspective of the Kuma.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{alvarez-gomez_fmcearthquake_2019,
	title = {{FMC}—Earthquake focal mechanisms data management, cluster and classification},
	volume = {9},
	issn = {23527110},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2352711018302590},
	doi = {10.1016/j.softx.2019.03.008},
	abstract = {Seismicity is frequently used to deduce the tectonics of a region. The study of earthquakes as a tectonic component, seismotectonics, has grown as one of the key research areas on active tectonics, especially from the analysis of earthquake focal mechanisms. {FMC} computes the different earthquake parameters that can be obtained from focal mechanism data, classifies the rupture type of each focal mechanism, performs a clustering analysis of the data if required by the user, outputs the parameters in different formats and generates a classification diagram from the input data.},
	pages = {299--307},
	journaltitle = {{SoftwareX}},
	author = {Álvarez-Gómez, José A.},
	urldate = {2023-01-12},
	date = {2019-01},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Álvarez-Gómez - 2019 - FMC—Earthquake focal mechanisms data management, c.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\FEKXETZ7\\Álvarez-Gómez - 2019 - FMC—Earthquake focal mechanisms data management, c.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{pappachen_crustal_2021,
	title = {Crustal velocity and interseismic strain-rate on possible zones for large earthquakes in the Garhwal–Kumaun Himalaya},
	volume = {11},
	issn = {2045-2322},
	url = {https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-00484-3},
	doi = {10.1038/s41598-021-00484-3},
	abstract = {Abstract
            The possibility of a major earthquake like 2015 Gorkha–Nepal or even greater is anticipated in the Garhwal–Kumaun region in the Central Seismic Gap of the {NW} Himalaya. The interseismic strain-rate from {GPS} derived crustal velocities show multifaceted strain-rate pattern in the region and are classified into four different strain-rate zones. Besides compressional, we identified two {NE}–{SW} orienting low strain rate ({\textasciitilde} 20 nstrain/a) zones; namely, the Ramganga-Baijro and the Nainital-Almora, where large earthquakes can occur. These zones have surface locking widths of {\textasciitilde} 72 and {\textasciitilde} 75 km respectively from the Frontal to the Outer Lesser Himalaya, where no significant surface rupture and associated large earthquakes were observed for the last 100 years. However, strain reducing extensional deformation zone that appears sandwiched between the low strain-rate zones pose uncertainties on the occurences of large earthquakes in the locked zone. Nevertheless, such zone acts as a conduit to transfer strain from the compressional zone ({\textgreater} 100 nstrain/a) to the deforming frontal active fault systems. We also observed a curvilinear surface strain-rate pattern in the Chamoli cluster and explained how asymmetric crustal accommodation processes at the northwest and the southeast edges of the Almora Klippe, cause clockwise rotational couple on the upper crust moving over the {MHT}.},
	pages = {21283},
	number = {1},
	journaltitle = {Sci Rep},
	author = {Pappachen, John P. and Sathiyaseelan, Rajesh and Gautam, Param K. and Pal, Sanjit Kumar},
	urldate = {2023-01-12},
	date = {2021-10-28},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Pappachen et al. - 2021 - Crustal velocity and interseismic strain-rate on p.pdf:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\MVYN3JGY\\Pappachen et al. - 2021 - Crustal velocity and interseismic strain-rate on p.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{konstantinou_presentday_2017,
	title = {Present‐day crustal stress field in Greece inferred from regional‐scale damped inversion of earthquake focal mechanisms},
	volume = {122},
	issn = {2169-9313, 2169-9356},
	url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/2016JB013272},
	doi = {10.1002/2016JB013272},
	pages = {506--523},
	number = {1},
	journaltitle = {J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth},
	author = {Konstantinou, K. I. and Mouslopoulou, V. and Liang, W.‐T. and Heidbach, O. and Oncken, O. and Suppe, J.},
	urldate = {2023-01-12},
	date = {2017-01},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Full Text:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\EZS3IU3U\\Konstantinou et al. - 2017 - Present‐day crustal stress field in Greece inferre.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{bilham_gps_1997,
	title = {{GPS} measurements of present-day convergence across the Nepal Himalaya},
	volume = {386},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/386061a0},
	doi = {10.1038/386061a0},
	pages = {61--64},
	number = {6620},
	journaltitle = {Nature},
	author = {Bilham, Roger and Larson, Kristine and Freymueller, Jeffrey},
	urldate = {2023-01-12},
	date = {1997-03},
	langid = {english},
}

@article{jade_gps-derived_2011,
	title = {{GPS}-derived deformation rates in northwestern Himalaya and Ladakh},
	volume = {100},
	issn = {1437-3254, 1437-3262},
	url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00531-010-0532-3},
	doi = {10.1007/s00531-010-0532-3},
	pages = {1293--1301},
	number = {6},
	journaltitle = {Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch)},
	author = {Jade, Sridevi and Raghavendra Rao, H. J. and Vijayan, M. S. M. and Gaur, V. K. and Bhatt, B. C. and Kumar, Kireet and Jaganathan, Saigeetha and Ananda, M. B. and Dileep Kumar, P.},
	urldate = {2023-01-12},
	date = {2011-09},
	langid = {english},
}

@article{kumar_coda_2019,
	title = {Coda Q estimation for Kinnaur region and surrounding part of {NW} Himalaya},
	volume = {23},
	issn = {1383-4649, 1573-157X},
	url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10950-018-9805-2},
	doi = {10.1007/s10950-018-9805-2},
	pages = {271--285},
	number = {2},
	journaltitle = {J Seismol},
	author = {Kumar, Naresh and Yadav, Dhirendra Nath},
	urldate = {2023-01-13},
	date = {2019-03},
	langid = {english},
}

@article{gephart_improved_1984,
	title = {An improved method for determining the regional stress tensor using earthquake focal mechanism data: Application to the San Fernando Earthquake Sequence},
	volume = {89},
	issn = {0148-0227},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/JB089iB11p09305},
	doi = {10.1029/JB089iB11p09305},
	shorttitle = {An improved method for determining the regional stress tensor using earthquake focal mechanism data},
	pages = {9305},
	issue = {B11},
	journaltitle = {J. Geophys. Res.},
	author = {Gephart, John W. and Forsyth, Donald W.},
	urldate = {2023-01-13},
	date = {1984},
	langid = {english},
}

@article{michael_determination_1984,
	title = {Determination of stress from slip data: Faults and folds},
	volume = {89},
	issn = {01480227},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/JB089iB13p11517},
	doi = {10.1029/JB089iB13p11517},
	shorttitle = {Determination of stress from slip data},
	pages = {11517--11526},
	issue = {B13},
	journaltitle = {J. Geophys. Res.},
	author = {Michael, Andrew J.},
	urldate = {2023-01-13},
	date = {1984-12-10},
	langid = {english},
}

@article{zoback_stress_1992,
	title = {Stress field constraints on intraplate seismicity in eastern North America},
	volume = {97},
	issn = {0148-0227},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/92JB00221},
	doi = {10.1029/92JB00221},
	pages = {11761},
	issue = {B8},
	journaltitle = {J. Geophys. Res.},
	author = {Zoback, Mary Lou},
	urldate = {2023-01-13},
	date = {1992},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Submitted Version:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\A244G64L\\Zoback - 1992 - Stress field constraints on intraplate seismicity .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{vavrycuk_iterative_2014,
	title = {Iterative joint inversion for stress and fault orientations from focal mechanisms},
	volume = {199},
	issn = {1365-246X, 0956-540X},
	url = {http://academic.oup.com/gji/article/199/1/69/723251/Iterative-joint-inversion-for-stress-and-fault},
	doi = {10.1093/gji/ggu224},
	pages = {69--77},
	number = {1},
	journaltitle = {Geophysical Journal International},
	author = {Vavryčuk, Václav},
	urldate = {2023-01-13},
	date = {2014-10-01},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Full Text:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\RF5WRII7\\Vavryčuk - 2014 - Iterative joint inversion for stress and fault ori.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{delvaux_paleostress_1997,
	title = {Paleostress reconstructions and geodynamics of the Baikal region, Central Asia, Part 2. Cenozoic rifting},
	volume = {282},
	issn = {00401951},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0040195197002102},
	doi = {10.1016/S0040-1951(97)00210-2},
	pages = {1--38},
	number = {1},
	journaltitle = {Tectonophysics},
	author = {Delvaux, Damien and Moeys, Rikkert and Stapel, Gerco and Petit, Carole and Levi, Kirill and Miroshnichenko, Andrei and Ruzhich, Valery and San'kov, Volodia},
	urldate = {2023-01-13},
	date = {1997-12},
	langid = {english},
}

@article{bisht_gps_2021,
	title = {{GPS} derived crustal velocity, tectonic deformation and strain in the Indian Himalayan arc},
	volume = {575-576},
	issn = {10406182},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1040618220301920},
	doi = {10.1016/j.quaint.2020.04.028},
	pages = {141--152},
	journaltitle = {Quaternary International},
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}

@article{bilham2001himalayan,
  title={Himalayan seismic hazard},
  author={Bilham, Roger and Gaur, Vinod K and Molnar, Peter},
  journal={Science},
  volume={293},
  number={5534},
  pages={1442--1444},
  year={2001},
  publisher={American Association for the Advancement of Science}
}

@article{ohtake1977seismicity,
  title={Seismicity gap near Oaxaca, southern Mexico as a probable precursor to a large earthquake},
  author={Ohtake, Masakazu and Matumoto, Tosimatu and Latham, Gary V},
  journal={Stress in the Earth},
  pages={375--385},
  year={1977},
  publisher={Springer}
}

@article{arora_seismotectonics_2016,
	title = {Seismotectonics and seismogenesis of Mw7.8 Gorkha earthquake and its aftershocks},
	volume = {133},
	issn = {13679120},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1367912016302310},
	doi = {10.1016/j.jseaes.2016.07.018},
	pages = {2--11},
	journaltitle = {Journal of Asian Earth Sciences},
	author = {Arora, B.R. and Bansal, B.K. and Prajapati, Sanjay K. and Sutar, Anup K. and Nayak, Shailesh},
	urldate = {2023-04-16},
	date = {2016-01},
	langid = {english},
}

@article{searle1987closing,
  title={The closing of Tethys and the tectonics of the Himalaya},
  author={Searle, MP and Windley, BF and Coward, MP and Cooper, DJW and Rex, AJ and Rex, D and Tingdong, LI and Xuchang, Xiao and Jan, MQ and Thakur, VC and others},
  journal={Geological Society of America Bulletin},
  volume={98},
  number={6},
  pages={678--701},
  year={1987},
  publisher={Geological Society of America}
}

@article{elliott_himalayan_2016,
	title = {Himalayan megathrust geometry and relation to topography revealed by the Gorkha earthquake},
	volume = {9},
	issn = {1752-0894, 1752-0908},
	url = {http://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo2623},
	doi = {10.1038/ngeo2623},
	pages = {174--180},
	number = {2},
	journaltitle = {Nature Geosci},
	author = {Elliott, J. R. and Jolivet, R. and González, P. J. and Avouac, J.-P. and Hollingsworth, J. and Searle, M. P. and Stevens, V. L.},
	urldate = {2023-04-16},
	date = {2016-02},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Accepted Version:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\EL5B9Z5B\\Elliott et al. - 2016 - Himalayan megathrust geometry and relation to topo.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{kayal_seismotectonic_2003,
	title = {Seismotectonic structures of the western and eastern Himalayas: constraint from microearthquake data.},
	pages = {279--311},
	number = {53},
	journaltitle = {Memoirs of the Geological Society of India},
	author = {Kayal, J.R.},
	date = {2003},
}

@article{gutenberg_frequency_1944,
	title = {Frequency of earthquakes in California*},
	volume = {34},
	issn = {1943-3573, 0037-1106},
	url = {https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/ssa/bssa/article/34/4/185/101140/Frequency-of-earthquakes-in-California},
	doi = {10.1785/BSSA0340040185},
	pages = {185--188},
	number = {4},
	journaltitle = {Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America},
	author = {Gutenberg, B. and Richter, C. F.},
	urldate = {2023-04-16},
	date = {1944-10-01},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Accepted Version:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\F8C4VRR7\\Gutenberg and Richter - 1944 - Frequency of earthquakes in California.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{utsu_centenary_1995,
	title = {The Centenary of the Omori Formula for a Decay Law of Aftershock Activity.},
	volume = {43},
	issn = {1884-2305, 0022-3743},
	url = {http://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jpe1952/43/1/43_1_1/_article},
	doi = {10.4294/jpe1952.43.1},
	pages = {1--33},
	number = {1},
	journaltitle = {J,Phys,Earth},
	author = {Utsu, Tokuji and Ogata, Yosihiko and S, Ritsuko and {Matsu'ura}},
	urldate = {2023-04-16},
	date = {1995},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Full Text:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\A34L6CIS\\Utsu et al. - 1995 - The Centenary of the Omori Formula for a Decay Law.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{dimri_fractal_2005,
	title = {Fractal analysis of aftershock sequence  of the Bhuj earthquake : A wavelet-based approach.},
	volume = {88},
	journaltitle = {Curr. Sci.},
	author = {Dimri, V P and Vedanti, N and {Chattopadhyay S}},
	date = {2005},
}

@article{godano_multifractal_1996,
	title = {Multifractal analysis of the spatial distribution of earthquakes in southern Italy},
	volume = {125},
	issn = {0956540X, 1365246X},
	url = {https://academic.oup.com/gji/article-lookup/doi/10.1111/j.1365-246X.1996.tb06033.x},
	doi = {10.1111/j.1365-246X.1996.tb06033.x},
	pages = {901--911},
	number = {3},
	journaltitle = {Geophysical Journal International},
	author = {Godano, C. and Alonzo, M. L. and Bottari, A.},
	urldate = {2023-04-16},
	date = {1996-06},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Submitted Version:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\SIJ4E8QM\\Godano et al. - 1996 - Multifractal analysis of the spatial distribution .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{gardner_is_1974,
	title = {Is the sequence of earthquakes in Southern California, with aftershocks removed, Poissonian?},
	volume = {64},
	issn = {1943-3573, 0037-1106},
	url = {https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/bssa/article/64/5/1363/117341/Is-the-sequence-of-earthquakes-in-Southern},
	doi = {10.1785/BSSA0640051363},
	abstract = {Abstract
            Yes.},
	pages = {1363--1367},
	number = {5},
	journaltitle = {Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America},
	author = {Gardner, J. K. and Knopoff, L.},
	urldate = {2023-04-16},
	date = {1974-10-01},
	langid = {english},
}

@article{sarlis_micro-scale_2018,
	title = {Micro-scale, mid-scale, and macro-scale in global seismicity identified by empirical mode decomposition and their multifractal characteristics},
	volume = {8},
	issn = {2045-2322},
	url = {https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-27567-y},
	doi = {10.1038/s41598-018-27567-y},
	abstract = {Abstract
            
              The magnitude time-series of the global seismicity is analyzed by the empirical mode decomposition giving rise to 14 intrinsic mode functions ({IMF}) and a trend. Using Hurst analysis one can identify three different sums of these {IMFs} and the trend which exhibit distinct multifractal behaviour and correspond to micro-, mid- and macro-scales. Their multifractal detrended fluctuation analysis reveals that the micro-scale time-series exhibits anticorrelated behaviour in contrast to the mid-scale one which is long-range correlated. Concerning the mid-scale one, in the range of 30 to 300 consecutive events the maximum entropy method power spectra indicates that it exhibits an 1/
              f
              
                α
              
              behaviour with
              α
              close to 1/3 which is compatible with the long-range correlations identified by detrended fluctuation analysis during periods of stationary seismicity. The results have been also verified to hold regionally for the earthquakes in Japan and shed light on the significance of the mid-scale of 30 to 300 events in the natural time analysis of global (and regional) seismicity. It is shown that when using the mid-scale time-series only, we can obtain results similar to those obtained by the natural time analysis of global seismicity when focusing on the prediction of earthquakes with
              M
               ≥ 8.4.},
	pages = {9206},
	number = {1},
	journaltitle = {Sci Rep},
	author = {Sarlis, Nicholas V. and Skordas, Efthimios S. and Mintzelas, Apostolis and Papadopoulou, Konstantina A.},
	urldate = {2023-04-16},
	date = {2018-06-15},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Full Text:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\TWZP2SRL\\Sarlis et al. - 2018 - Micro-scale, mid-scale, and macro-scale in global .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{sobolev_evolution_2003,
	title = {Evolution of periodic variations in the seismic intensity before strong earthquakes.},
	volume = {39},
	pages = {873--884},
	number = {11},
	journaltitle = {Izvestiya Phys. Solid Earth},
	author = {Sobolev, G.A.},
	date = {2003},
}

@article{rajendran_status_2005,
	title = {The status of central seismic gap: a perspective based on the spatial and temporal aspects of the large Himalayan earthquakes},
	volume = {395},
	issn = {00401951},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0040195104003415},
	doi = {10.1016/j.tecto.2004.09.009},
	shorttitle = {The status of central seismic gap},
	pages = {19--39},
	number = {1},
	journaltitle = {Tectonophysics},
	author = {Rajendran and Rajendran, Kusala},
	urldate = {2023-04-16},
	date = {2005-01},
	langid = {english},
}

@article{saji_surface_2020,
	title = {Surface Deformation and Influence of Hydrological Mass Over Himalaya and North India Revealed from a Decade of Continuous {GPS} and {GRACE} Observations},
	volume = {125},
	issn = {2169-9003, 2169-9011},
	url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2018JF004943},
	doi = {10.1029/2018JF004943},
	number = {1},
	journaltitle = {J. Geophys. Res. Earth Surf.},
	author = {Saji, Ajish P. and Sunil, P. S. and Sreejith, K. M. and Gautam, Param K. and Kumar, K. Vijay and Ponraj, M. and Amirtharaj, S. and Shaju, Rose Mary and Begum, S. K. and Reddy, C. D. and Ramesh, D. S.},
	urldate = {2023-04-16},
	date = {2020-01},
	langid = {english},
}

@article{bollinger_seasonal_2007,
	title = {Seasonal Modulation of Seismicity in the Himalaya of Nepal: Seismicity in the Himalaya of Nepal},
	volume = {34},
	issn = {00948276},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2006GL029192},
	doi = {10.1029/2006GL029192},
	shorttitle = {Seasonal Modulation of Seismicity in the Himalaya of Nepal},
	number = {8},
	journaltitle = {Geophys. Res. Lett.},
	author = {Bollinger, L. and Perrier, F. and Avouac, J.-P. and Sapkota, S. and Gautam, U. and Tiwari, D. R.},
	urldate = {2023-04-16},
	date = {2007-04},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Full Text:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\3P4NNIJ4\\Bollinger et al. - 2007 - Seasonal modulation of seismicity in the Himalaya .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{gautam_continuous_2017,
	title = {Continuous {GPS} measurements of crustal deformation in Garhwal-Kumaun Himalaya},
	volume = {462},
	issn = {10406182},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1040618216307017},
	doi = {10.1016/j.quaint.2017.05.043},
	pages = {124--129},
	journaltitle = {Quaternary International},
	author = {Gautam, Param K. and Gahalaut, V.K. and Prajapati, Sanjay K. and Kumar, Naresh and Yadav, Rajeev K. and Rana, Naresh and Dabral, Chandra P.},
	urldate = {2023-04-16},
	date = {2017-12},
	langid = {english},
}

@article{iyengar_earthquakes_1996,
	title = {Some Earthquakes of Kashmir from Historical Sources.},
	volume = {71},
	pages = {300--331},
	journaltitle = {Current Science},
	author = {Iyengar, R.N. and Sharma, D},
	date = {1996},
}

@article{gutenberg_earthquake_1956,
	title = {Earthquake magnitude, intensity, energy, and acceleration},
	volume = {46},
	issn = {1943-3573, 0037-1106},
	url = {https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/ssa/bssa/article/46/2/105/115777/Earthquake-magnitude-intensity-energy-and},
	doi = {10.1785/BSSA0460020105},
	abstract = {Abstract
            This supersedes Paper 1 (Gutenberg and Richter, 1942). Additional data are presented. Revisions involving intensity and acceleration are minor. The equation log a = I/3 − 1/2 is retained. The magnitude-energy relation is revised as follows:
            (20) log ⁡ E = 9.4 + 2.14 M − 0.054 M 2
            A numerical equivalent, for M from 1 to 8.6, is
            (21) log ⁡ E = 9.1 + 1.75 M + log ⁡ ( 9 − M )
            Equation (20) is based on
            (7) log ⁡ ( A 0 / T 0 ) = − 0.76 + 0.91 M − 0.027 M 2
            applying at an assumed point epicenter. Eq. (7) is derived empirically from readings of torsion seismometers and {USCGS} accelerographs. Amplitudes at the {USCGS} locations have been divided by an average factor of 2 1/2 to compensate for difference in ground; previously this correction was neglected, and log E was overestimated by 0.8. The terms M2 are due partly to the response of the torsion seismometers as affected by increase of ground period with M, partly to the use of surface waves to determine M. If {MS} results from surface waves, {MB} from body waves, approximately
            (27) M S − M B = 0.4 ( M S − 7 )
            It appears that {MB} corresponds more closely to the magnitude scale determined for local earthquakes.
            A complete revision of the magnitude scale, with appropriate tables and charts, is in preparation. This will probably be based on A/T rather than amplitudes.},
	pages = {105--145},
	number = {2},
	journaltitle = {Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America},
	author = {Gutenberg, B. and Richter, C. F.},
	urldate = {2023-04-16},
	date = {1956-04-01},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Accepted Version:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\A8QSU9LM\\Gutenberg and Richter - 1956 - Earthquake magnitude, intensity, energy, and accel.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@book{lowrie_fundamentals_2007,
	edition = {2},
	title = {Fundamentals of Geophysics},
	isbn = {978-0-521-85902-8 978-0-521-67596-3 978-0-511-80710-7},
	url = {https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9780511807107/type/book},
	abstract = {This second edition of Fundamentals of Geophysics has been completely revised and updated, and is the ideal geophysics textbook for undergraduate students of geoscience with an introductory level of knowledge in physics and mathematics. It gives a comprehensive treatment of the fundamental principles of each major branch of geophysics, and presents geophysics within the wider context of plate tectonics, geodynamics and planetary science. Basic principles are explained with the aid of numerous figures and step-by-step mathematical treatments, and important geophysical results are illustrated with examples from the scientific literature. Text-boxes are used for auxiliary explanations and to handle topics of interest for more advanced students. This new edition also includes review questions at the end of each chapter to help assess the reader's understanding of the topics covered and quantitative exercises for more thorough evaluation. Solutions to the exercises and electronic copies of the figures are available at www.cambridge.org/9780521859028.},
	publisher = {Cambridge University Press},
	author = {Lowrie, William},
	urldate = {2023-04-16},
	date = {2007-09-20},
	doi = {10.1017/CBO9780511807107},
	file = {Submitted Version:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\UG8LABT5\\Lowrie - 2007 - Fundamentals of Geophysics.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{cox_d_r_statistical_1966,
	title = {The statistical analysis of series of events.},
	author = {{Cox, D. R.} and {Lewis, P. A.}},
	date = {1966},
}

@article{rajendra_prasad_crustal_2011,
	title = {Crustal structure beneath the Sub-Himalayan fold–thrust belt, Kangra recess, northwest India, from seismic reflection profiling: Implications for Late Paleoproterozoic orogenesis and modern earthquake hazard},
	volume = {308},
	issn = {0012821X},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0012821X11003451},
	doi = {10.1016/j.epsl.2011.05.052},
	shorttitle = {Crustal structure beneath the Sub-Himalayan fold–thrust belt, Kangra recess, northwest India, from seismic reflection profiling},
	pages = {218--228},
	number = {1},
	journaltitle = {Earth and Planetary Science Letters},
	author = {Rajendra Prasad, B. and Klemperer, Simon L. and Vijaya Rao, V. and Tewari, H.C. and Khare, Prakash},
	urldate = {2023-04-16},
	date = {2011-08},
	langid = {english},
}

@article{gahalaut_major_2008,
	title = {Major and great earthquakes and seismic gaps in the Himalayan Arc.},
	volume = {66},
	pages = {373--394},
	journaltitle = {Geol Soc India},
	author = {Gahalaut, V.K.},
	date = {2008},
}

@article{yeats_r_s_reassessment_1998,
	title = {Reassessment of earthquake hazard based on a fault-bend fold model of the Himalayan plate-boundary fault.},
	volume = {74},
	pages = {230--233},
	journaltitle = {current science},
	author = {{Yeats, R. S.} and {V.C. Thakur}},
	date = {1998},
}

@article{gahalaut_himalayan_2001,
	title = {Himalayan mid-crustal ramp.},
	volume = {81},
	url = {http://www.jstor.org/stable/24106046},
	pages = {1641--1646},
	number = {12},
	journaltitle = {Current Science},
	author = {Gahalaut, V.K. and Gahalaut, Kalpna},
	date = {2001},
}

@article{wyss_precursory_1988,
	title = {Precursory seismic quiescence},
	volume = {126},
	issn = {0033-4553, 1420-9136},
	url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/BF00879001},
	doi = {10.1007/BF00879001},
	pages = {319--332},
	number = {2},
	journaltitle = {{PAGEOPH}},
	author = {Wyss, Max and Habermann, R. E.},
	urldate = {2023-04-16},
	date = {1988-06},
	langid = {english},
}

@article{hiramatsu_seismological_2005,
	title = {Seismological evidence on characteristic time of crack healing in the shallow crust},
	volume = {32},
	issn = {0094-8276},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2005GL022657},
	doi = {10.1029/2005GL022657},
	pages = {L09304},
	number = {9},
	journaltitle = {Geophys. Res. Lett.},
	author = {Hiramatsu, Yoshihiro},
	urldate = {2023-04-16},
	date = {2005},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Submitted Version:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\P97W6RKY\\Hiramatsu - 2005 - Seismological evidence on characteristic time of c.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{lund_calculating_2007,
	title = {Calculating horizontal stress orientations with full or partial knowledge of the tectonic stress tensor},
	volume = {170},
	issn = {0956540X, 1365246X},
	url = {https://academic.oup.com/gji/article-lookup/doi/10.1111/j.1365-246X.2007.03468.x},
	doi = {10.1111/j.1365-246X.2007.03468.x},
	pages = {1328--1335},
	number = {3},
	journaltitle = {Geophysical Journal International},
	author = {Lund, Björn and Townend, John},
	urldate = {2023-04-22},
	date = {2007-09},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Full Text:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\PKVUUJ8S\\Lund and Townend - 2007 - Calculating horizontal stress orientations with fu.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{hardebeck_damped_2006,
	title = {Damped regional-scale stress inversions: Methodology and examples for southern California and the Coalinga aftershock sequence: {DAMPED} {REGIONAL}-{SCALE} {STRESS} {INVERSIONS}},
	volume = {111},
	issn = {01480227},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2005JB004144},
	doi = {10.1029/2005JB004144},
	shorttitle = {Damped regional-scale stress inversions},
	pages = {n/a--n/a},
	issue = {B11},
	journaltitle = {J. Geophys. Res.},
	author = {Hardebeck, Jeanne L. and Michael, Andrew J.},
	urldate = {2023-04-30},
	date = {2006-11},
	langid = {english},
}

@article{chang_earthquake_2019,
	title = {Earthquake Focal Mechanisms and Stress Field for the Intermediate‐Depth Cauca Cluster, Colombia},
	volume = {124},
	issn = {2169-9313, 2169-9356},
	url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2018JB016804},
	doi = {10.1029/2018JB016804},
	pages = {822--836},
	number = {1},
	journaltitle = {J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth},
	author = {Chang, Y. and Warren, L. M. and Zhu, L. and Prieto, G. A.},
	urldate = {2023-04-30},
	date = {2019-01},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Full Text:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\FEJ9PEPQ\\Chang et al. - 2019 - Earthquake Focal Mechanisms and Stress Field for t.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{parsons_geological_2020,
	title = {Geological, geophysical and plate kinematic constraints for models of the India-Asia collision and the post-Triassic central Tethys oceans},
	volume = {208},
	issn = {00128252},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0012825219303514},
	doi = {10.1016/j.earscirev.2020.103084},
	pages = {103084},
	journaltitle = {Earth-Science Reviews},
	author = {Parsons, Andrew J. and Hosseini, Kasra and Palin, Richard M. and Sigloch, Karin},
	urldate = {2023-05-09},
	date = {2020-09},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Full Text:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\KS323ZLN\\Parsons et al. - 2020 - Geological, geophysical and plate kinematic constr.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{arora_structural_2012,
	title = {Structural control on along-strike variation in the seismicity of the northwest Himalaya},
	volume = {57},
	issn = {13679120},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1367912012002490},
	doi = {10.1016/j.jseaes.2012.06.001},
	pages = {15--24},
	journaltitle = {Journal of Asian Earth Sciences},
	author = {Arora, B.R. and Gahalaut, V.K. and Kumar, Naresh},
	urldate = {2023-05-18},
	date = {2012-09},
	langid = {english},
}

@report{lee_method_1972,
	title = {A method of estimating magnitude of local earthquakes from signal duration},
	institution = {{US} Department of the Interior},
	type = {Open-File Report},
	author = {Lee, {WHK} and Bennett, R.E. and Meagher, K. L.},
	date = {1972},
	langid = {english},
	note = {Series: Open-File Report},
}

@article{wang_three-dimensional_2023,
	title = {Three-dimensional kinematics of the India–Eurasia collision},
	volume = {4},
	issn = {2662-4435},
	url = {https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-023-00815-4},
	doi = {10.1038/s43247-023-00815-4},
	abstract = {Abstract
            The collision between India and Eurasia mobilizes multiple processes of continental tectonics. However, how deformation develops within the lithosphere across the Tibetan Plateau is still poorly known and a synoptic view is missing. Here, we exploit an extensive geodetic observatory to resolve the kinematics of this diffuse plate boundary and the arrangement of various mechanisms down to upper-mantle depths. The three-dimensional velocity field is compatible with continental underthrusting below the central Himalayas and with delamination rollback below the western syntaxis. The rise of the Tibetan Plateau occurs by shortening in the Indian and Asian crusts at its southern and northwestern margins. The subsidence of Central Tibet is associated with lateral extrusion and attendant lithospheric thinning aided by the downwelling current from the opposite-facing Indian and Asian collisions. The current kinematics of the Indian-Eurasian collision may reflect the differential evolution of the inner and outer Tibetan Plateau during the late Cenozoic.},
	pages = {164},
	number = {1},
	journaltitle = {Commun Earth Environ},
	author = {Wang, Lifeng and Barbot, Sylvain},
	urldate = {2023-06-01},
	date = {2023-05-12},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Full Text:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\FGZDJVEF\\Wang and Barbot - 2023 - Three-dimensional kinematics of the India–Eurasia .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{medved_lithosphere_2022,
	title = {Lithosphere structure in the collision zone of the {NW} Himalayas revealed by alocal earthquake tomography},
	volume = {152},
	issn = {02643707},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0264370722000266},
	doi = {10.1016/j.jog.2022.101922},
	pages = {101922},
	journaltitle = {Journal of Geodynamics},
	author = {Medved, Irina and Koulakov, Ivan and Mukhopadhyay, Sagarika and Jakovlev, Andrey},
	urldate = {2023-06-01},
	date = {2022-07},
	langid = {english},
}

@article{singh_tectonic_2010,
	title = {Tectonic evolution of Kishtwar Window with respect to the Main Central Thrust, northwest Himalaya, India},
	volume = {39},
	issn = {13679120},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1367912010000829},
	doi = {10.1016/j.jseaes.2010.03.004},
	pages = {125--135},
	number = {3},
	journaltitle = {Journal of Asian Earth Sciences},
	author = {Singh, Keser},
	urldate = {2023-06-01},
	date = {2010-08},
	langid = {english},
}

@article{gansser1964geology,
  title={Geology of the Himalayas},
  author={Gansser, Augusto},
  journal={(No Title)},
  year={1964}
}

@article{gansser_indian_1966,
	title = {The Indian Ocean and the Himalayas : a geological interpretation},
	url = {https://www.e-periodica.ch/digbib/view?pid=egh-001:1966:59::1470},
	doi = {10.5169/SEALS-163396},
	shorttitle = {The Indian Ocean and the Himalayas},
	author = {Gansser, Augusto},
	urldate = {2023-07-10},
	date = {1966-12-01},
	note = {Medium: text/html,application/pdf,text/html
Publisher: Birkhäuser Verlag Schweiz},
}

@article{powers_structure_1998,
	title = {Structure and shortening of the Kangra and Dehra Dun reentrants, Sub-Himalaya, India},
	volume = {110},
	issn = {00167606},
	url = {https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsabulletin/article/110/8/1010-1027/183388},
	doi = {10.1130/0016-7606(1998)110<1010:SASOTK>2.3.CO;2},
	pages = {1010--1027},
	number = {8},
	journaltitle = {Geological Society of America Bulletin},
	author = {Powers, Peter M. and Lillie, Robert J. and Yeats, Robert S.},
	urldate = {2023-07-10},
	date = {1998-08},
}

@article{banerjee_convergence_2002,
	title = {Convergence across the northwest Himalaya from {GPS} measurements},
	volume = {29},
	issn = {0094-8276},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2002GL015184},
	doi = {10.1029/2002GL015184},
	pages = {1652},
	number = {13},
	journaltitle = {Geophys. Res. Lett.},
	author = {Banerjee, P and Bürgmann, R},
	urldate = {2023-07-10},
	date = {2002},
	langid = {english},
}

@article{powell_plate_1973,
	title = {Plate tectonics and the Himalayas},
	volume = {20},
	issn = {0012821X},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0012821X73901349},
	doi = {10.1016/0012-821X(73)90134-9},
	pages = {1--12},
	number = {1},
	journaltitle = {Earth and Planetary Science Letters},
	author = {Powell, C.{McA}. and Conaghan, P.J.},
	urldate = {2023-07-10},
	date = {1973-09},
	langid = {english},
}

@article{yin_geologic_2000,
	title = {Geologic Evolution of the Himalayan-Tibetan Orogen},
	volume = {28},
	issn = {0084-6597, 1545-4495},
	url = {https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.earth.28.1.211},
	doi = {10.1146/annurev.earth.28.1.211},
	abstract = {A review of the geologic history of the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen suggests that at least 1400 km of north-south shortening has been absorbed by the orogen since the onset of the Indo-Asian collision at about 70 Ma. Significant crustal shortening, which leads to eventual construction of the Cenozoic Tibetan plateau, began more or less synchronously in the Eocene (50–40 Ma) in the Tethyan Himalaya in the south, and in the Kunlun Shan and the Qilian Shan some 1000–1400 km in the north. The Paleozoic and Mesozoic tectonic histories in the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen exerted a strong control over the Cenozoic strain history and strain distribution. The presence of widespread Triassic flysch complex in the Songpan-Ganzi-Hoh Xil and the Qiangtang terranes can be spatially correlated with Cenozoic volcanism and thrusting in central Tibet. The marked difference in seismic properties of the crust and the upper mantle between southern and central Tibet is a manifestation of both Mesozoic and Cenozoic tectonics. The former, however, has played a decisive role in localizing Tertiary contractional deformation, which in turn leads to the release of free water into the upper mantle and the lower crust of central Tibet, causing partial melting in the mantle lithosphere and the crust.},
	pages = {211--280},
	number = {1},
	journaltitle = {Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci.},
	author = {Yin, An and Harrison, T. Mark},
	urldate = {2023-07-10},
	date = {2000-05},
	langid = {english},
}

@book{dubey_understanding_2014,
	location = {Cham},
	title = {Understanding an Orogenic Belt: Structural Evolution of the Himalaya},
	isbn = {978-3-319-05587-9 978-3-319-05588-6},
	url = {https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-319-05588-6},
	shorttitle = {Understanding an Orogenic Belt},
	publisher = {Springer International Publishing},
	author = {Dubey, Ashok Kumar},
	urldate = {2023-07-10},
	date = {2014},
	langid = {english},
	doi = {10.1007/978-3-319-05588-6},
	file = {Submitted Version:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\J68LP626\\Dubey - 2014 - Understanding an Orogenic Belt Structural Evoluti.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{najman_evolution_2004,
	title = {Evolution of the Himalayan foreland basin, {NW} India},
	volume = {16},
	issn = {0950-091X, 1365-2117},
	url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2117.2004.00223.x},
	doi = {10.1111/j.1365-2117.2004.00223.x},
	pages = {1--24},
	number = {1},
	journaltitle = {Basin Research},
	author = {Najman, Yani and Johnson, Kit and White, Nicola and Oliver, Grahame},
	urldate = {2023-07-10},
	date = {2004-03},
	langid = {english},
    year={2004},
    publisher={European Association of Geoscientists \& Engineers}
}


@article{nelson_partially_1996,
	title = {Partially Molten Middle Crust Beneath Southern Tibet: Synthesis of Project {INDEPTH} Results},
	volume = {274},
	issn = {0036-8075, 1095-9203},
	url = {https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.274.5293.1684},
	doi = {10.1126/science.274.5293.1684},
	shorttitle = {Partially Molten Middle Crust Beneath Southern Tibet},
	pages = {1684--1688},
	number = {5293},
	journaltitle = {Science},
	author = {Nelson, K. D. and Zhao, Wenjin and Brown, L. D. and Kuo, J. and Che, Jinkai and Liu, Xianwen and Klemperer, S. L. and Makovsky, Y. and Meissner, R. and Mechie, J. and Kind, R. and Wenzel, F. and Ni, J. and Nabelek, J. and Leshou, Chen and Tan, Handong and Wei, Wenbo and Jones, A. G. and Booker, J. and Unsworth, M. and Kidd, W. S. F. and Hauck, M. and Alsdorf, D. and Ross, A. and Cogan, M. and Wu, Changde and Sandvol, E. and Edwards, M.},
	urldate = {2023-07-10},
	date = {1996-12-06},
	langid = {english},
}

@article{subedi_imaging_2018,
	title = {Imaging the Moho and the Main Himalayan Thrust in Western Nepal with Receiver Functions},
	volume = {45},
	issn = {0094-8276, 1944-8007},
	url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2018GL080911},
	doi = {10.1029/2018GL080911},
	number = {24},
	journaltitle = {Geophys. Res. Lett.},
	author = {Subedi, Shiba and Hetényi, György and Vergne, Jérôme and Bollinger, Laurent and Lyon‐Caen, Hélène and Farra, Véronique and Adhikari, Lok Bijaya and Gupta, Ratna Mani},
	urldate = {2023-07-10},
	date = {2018-12-28},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Full Text:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\PRF59P77\\Subedi et al. - 2018 - Imaging the Moho and the Main Himalayan Thrust in .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{lemonnier_electrical_1999,
	title = {Electrical structure of the Himalaya of central Nepal: High conductivity around the mid-crustal ramp along the {MHT}},
	volume = {26},
	issn = {00948276},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/1999GL008363},
	doi = {10.1029/1999GL008363},
	shorttitle = {Electrical structure of the Himalaya of central Nepal},
	pages = {3261--3264},
	number = {21},
	journaltitle = {Geophys. Res. Lett.},
	author = {Lemonnier, Carole and Marquis, Guy and Perrier, Frédéric and Avouac, Jean-Philippe and Chitrakar, Gyani and Kafle, Basantha and Sapkota, Som and Gautam, Umesh and Tiwari, Dilliram and Bano, Maksim},
	urldate = {2023-07-10},
	date = {1999-11-01},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Full Text:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\CYZG7AV8\\Lemonnier et al. - 1999 - Electrical structure of the Himalaya of central Ne.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{srivastava_thrust_1994,
	title = {Thrust geometries and deep structure of the outer and lesser Himalaya, Kumaon and Garhwal (India): Implications for evolution of the Himalayan fold-and-thrust belt},
	volume = {13},
	issn = {02787407},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/93TC01130},
	doi = {10.1029/93TC01130},
	shorttitle = {Thrust geometries and deep structure of the outer and lesser Himalaya, Kumaon and Garhwal (India)},
	pages = {89--109},
	number = {1},
	journaltitle = {Tectonics},
	author = {Srivastava, Praveen and Mitra, Gautam},
	urldate = {2023-07-10},
	date = {1994-02},
	langid = {english},
}

@article{jouanne_current_2004,
	title = {Current shortening across the Himalayas of Nepal},
	volume = {157},
	issn = {0956540X, 1365246X},
	url = {https://academic.oup.com/gji/article-lookup/doi/10.1111/j.1365-246X.2004.02180.x},
	doi = {10.1111/j.1365-246X.2004.02180.x},
	pages = {1--14},
	number = {1},
	journaltitle = {Geophysical Journal International},
	author = {Jouanne, F. and Mugnier, J. L. and Gamond, J. F. and Fort, P. Le and Pandey, M. R. and Bollinger, L. and Flouzat, M. and Avouac, J. P.},
	urldate = {2023-07-10},
	date = {2004-04},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Full Text:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\HB79TVK8\\Jouanne et al. - 2004 - Current shortening across the Himalayas of Nepal.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{sykes_aftershock_1971,
	title = {Aftershock zones of great earthquakes, seismicity gaps, and earthquake prediction for Alaska and the Aleutians},
	volume = {76},
	issn = {01480227},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/JB076i032p08021},
	doi = {10.1029/JB076i032p08021},
	pages = {8021--8041},
	number = {32},
	journaltitle = {J. Geophys. Res.},
	author = {Sykes, Lynn R.},
	urldate = {2023-07-10},
	date = {1971-11-10},
	langid = {english},
}

@incollection{utsu_43_2002,
	title = {43 Statistical features of seismicity},
	volume = {81},
	isbn = {978-0-12-440652-0},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0074614202802467},
	pages = {719--732},
	booktitle = {International Geophysics},
	publisher = {Elsevier},
	author = {Utsu, Tokuji},
	urldate = {2023-07-10},
	date = {2002},
	langid = {english},
	doi = {10.1016/S0074-6142(02)80246-7},
}

@article{kelleher_possible_1973,
	title = {Possible criteria for predicting earthquake locations and their application to major plate boundaries of the Pacific and the Caribbean},
	volume = {78},
	issn = {01480227},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/JB078i014p02547},
	doi = {10.1029/JB078i014p02547},
	pages = {2547--2585},
	number = {14},
	journaltitle = {J. Geophys. Res.},
	author = {Kelleher, John and Sykes, Lynn and Oliver, Jack},
	urldate = {2023-07-12},
	date = {1973-05-10},
	langid = {english},
}

@incollection{wyss_seismicity_1977,
	location = {Basel},
	title = {Seismicity Gap near Oaxaca, Southern Mexico as a Probable Precursor to a Large Earthquake},
	isbn = {978-3-0348-5746-8 978-3-0348-5745-1},
	url = {https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-0348-5745-1_23},
	pages = {375--385},
	booktitle = {Stress in the Earth},
	publisher = {Birkhäuser Basel},
	author = {Ohtake, Masakazu and Matumoto, Tosimatu and Latham, Gary V.},
	editor = {Wyss, Max},
	urldate = {2023-07-12},
	date = {1977},
	langid = {german},
	doi = {10.1007/978-3-0348-5745-1_23},
}

@article{utsu_aftershocks_1972,
	title = {Aftershocks and earthquake statistics (3): Analyses of the distribution of earthquakes in magnitude, time and space with special consideration to clustering characteristics of earthquake occurrence (1).},
	volume = {3},
	rights = {Hokkaido University},
	series = {7},
	pages = {379--441},
	number = {5},
	journaltitle = {Journal of the Faculty of Science},
	author = {Utsu, Tokuji},
	date = {1972},
}

@incollection{wyss_how_1999,
	location = {Basel},
	title = {How Can One Test the Seismic Gap Hypothesis? The Case of Repeated Ruptures in the Aleutians},
	isbn = {978-3-7643-6209-6 978-3-0348-8677-2},
	url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-0348-8677-2_4},
	shorttitle = {How Can One Test the Seismic Gap Hypothesis?},
	pages = {259--278},
	booktitle = {Seismicity Patterns, their Statistical Significance and Physical Meaning},
	publisher = {Birkhäuser Basel},
	author = {Wyss, Max and Wiemer, Stefan},
	editor = {Wyss, Max and Shimazaki, Kunihiko and Ito, Akihiko},
	urldate = {2023-07-12},
	date = {1999},
	langid = {english},
	doi = {10.1007/978-3-0348-8677-2_4},
}

@article{khattri_precursory_1978,
	title = {Precursory variation of seismicity rate in the Assam area, India},
	volume = {6},
	issn = {0091-7613},
	url = {https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/geology/article/6/11/685-688/185899},
	doi = {10.1130/0091-7613(1978)6<685:PVOSRI>2.0.CO;2},
	pages = {685},
	number = {11},
	journaltitle = {Geol},
	author = {Khattri, K. and Wyss, M.},
	urldate = {2023-07-12},
	date = {1978},
	langid = {english},
}

@article{pogodina_elizaveta_1975,
	title = {Elizaveta Nilolaevna Levkovich-75th birthday},
	volume = {19},
	issn = {0001-723X},
	pages = {509},
	number = {6},
	journaltitle = {Acta Virol},
	author = {Pogodina, V. V.},
	date = {1975-11},
	pmid = {2002},
	keywords = {Arboviruses, History, 20th Century, {USSR}, Virology},
}

@article{paudyal2012himalayan,
  title={Himalayan seismic activity: a concise picture},
  author={Paudyal, Harihar},
  journal={Himalayan Physics},
  volume={3},
  pages={35--37},
  year={2012}
}

@article{thakur1992geology,
  title={Geology of western Himalaya},
  author={Thakur, Vikram C},
  journal={Physics and Chemistry of the Earth},
  volume={19},
  pages={1--355},
  year={1992}
}

@article{sella_revel_2002,
	title = {{REVEL}: A model for Recent plate velocities from space geodesy},
	volume = {107},
	issn = {01480227},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2000JB000033},
	doi = {10.1029/2000JB000033},
	shorttitle = {{REVEL}},
	pages = {ETG 11--1--ETG 11--30},
	issue = {B4},
	journaltitle = {J. Geophys. Res.},
	author = {Sella, Giovanni F. and Dixon, Timothy H. and Mao, Ailin},
	urldate = {2023-07-12},
	date = {2002-04},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Full Text:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\DRZYT4H2\\Sella et al. - 2002 - REVEL A model for Recent plate velocities from sp.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{bilham_earthquakes_2004,
	title = {Earthquakes in India and the Himalaya: tectonics, geodesy and history.},
	volume = {47},
	pages = {839--858},
	journaltitle = {Annals of Geophysics},
	author = {Bilham, Roger},
	date = {2004},
}

@article{hubbard_40_1989,
	title = {$^{\textrm{40}}$ Ar/ $^{\textrm{39}}$ Ar age constraints on deformation and metamorphism in the main central thrust zone and Tibetan slab, eastern Nepal Himalaya},
	volume = {8},
	issn = {02787407},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/TC008i004p00865},
	doi = {10.1029/TC008i004p00865},
	pages = {865--880},
	number = {4},
	journaltitle = {Tectonics},
	author = {Hubbard, Mary S. and Harrison, T. Mark},
	urldate = {2023-07-12},
	date = {1989-08},
	langid = {english},
}

@article{jayangondaperumal_superposed_2001,
	title = {Superposed folding of a blind thrust and formation of klippen: results of anisotropic magnetic susceptibility studies from the Lesser Himalaya},
	volume = {19},
	issn = {13679120},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1367912000000663},
	doi = {10.1016/S1367-9120(00)00066-3},
	shorttitle = {Superposed folding of a blind thrust and formation of klippen},
	pages = {713--725},
	number = {6},
	journaltitle = {Journal of Asian Earth Sciences},
	author = {Jayangondaperumal, R. and Dubey, A.K.},
	urldate = {2023-07-12},
	date = {2001-10},
	langid = {english},
}

@article{thakur_late_2007,
	title = {Late Quaternary–Holocene evolution of Dun structure and the Himalayan Frontal Fault zone of the Garhwal Sub-Himalaya, {NW} India},
	volume = {29},
	issn = {13679120},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1367912006000496},
	doi = {10.1016/j.jseaes.2006.02.002},
	pages = {305--319},
	number = {2},
	journaltitle = {Journal of Asian Earth Sciences},
	author = {Thakur, V.C. and Pandey, A.K. and Suresh, N.},
	urldate = {2023-07-12},
	date = {2007-02},
	langid = {english},
}

@book{kayal_microearthquake_2008,
	location = {Dordrecht},
	title = {Microearthquake Seismology and Seismotectonics of South Asia},
	isbn = {978-1-4020-8179-8 978-1-4020-8180-4},
	url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4020-8180-4},
	publisher = {Springer Netherlands},
	author = {Kayal, J.R.},
	urldate = {2023-07-12},
	date = {2008},
	langid = {english},
	doi = {10.1007/978-1-4020-8180-4},
	file = {Full Text:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\78DIQYPJ\\2008 - Microearthquake Seismology and Seismotectonics of .pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{brown_bright_1996,
	title = {Bright Spots, Structure, and Magmatism in Southern Tibet from {INDEPTH} Seismic Reflection Profiling},
	volume = {274},
	issn = {0036-8075, 1095-9203},
	url = {https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.274.5293.1688},
	doi = {10.1126/science.274.5293.1688},
	pages = {1688--1690},
	number = {5293},
	journaltitle = {Science},
	author = {Brown, L. D. and Zhao, Wenjin and Nelson, K. D. and Hauck, M. and Alsdorf, D. and Ross, A. and Cogan, M. and Clark, M. and Liu, Xianwen and Che, Jinkai},
	urldate = {2023-07-12},
	date = {1996-12-06},
	langid = {english},
}

@article{michael_spatial_1991,
	title = {Spatial variations in stress within the 1987 Whittier Narrows, California, aftershock sequence: New techniques and results},
	volume = {96},
	issn = {01480227},
	url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/91JB00195},
	doi = {10.1029/91JB00195},
	shorttitle = {Spatial variations in stress within the 1987 Whittier Narrows, California, aftershock sequence},
	pages = {6303--6319},
	issue = {B4},
	journaltitle = {J. Geophys. Res.},
	author = {Michael, Andrew J.},
	urldate = {2023-09-03},
	date = {1991-04-10},
	langid = {english},
}

@incollection{gupta_active_2020,
	location = {Cham},
	title = {Active Tectonics of Himalayan Frontal Fault Zone in the Sub-Himalaya},
	isbn = {978-3-030-15988-7 978-3-030-15989-4},
	url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-030-15989-4_12},
	pages = {439--466},
	booktitle = {Geodynamics of the Indian Plate},
	publisher = {Springer International Publishing},
	author = {Thakur, V. C. and Joshi, M. and Jayangondaperumal, R.},
	editor = {Gupta, Neal and Tandon, Sampat K.},
	urldate = {2023-09-26},
	date = {2020},
	langid = {english},
	doi = {10.1007/978-3-030-15989-4_12},
	note = {Series Title: Springer Geology},
}

@article{babu_updated_2023,
	title = {An updated earthquake catalogue and seismic regimes in the northwest Himalaya: Seismic periodicity associated with strong earthquakes},
	volume = {132},
	rights = {All rights reserved},
	issn = {0973-774X},
	url = {https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s12040-023-02180-4},
	doi = {10.1007/s12040-023-02180-4},
	shorttitle = {An updated earthquake catalogue and seismic regimes in the northwest Himalaya},
	pages = {173},
	number = {4},
	journaltitle = {J Earth Syst Sci},
	author = {Babu, Vivek G and Kumar, Naresh and Verma, S K and Pal, S K},
	urldate = {2023-10-22},
	date = {2023-10-21},
	langid = {english},
}

@article{dziewonski_determination_1981,
	title = {Determination of earthquake source parameters from waveform data for studies of global and regional seismicity},
	volume = {86},
	issn = {0148-0227},
	url = {https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/JB086iB04p02825},
	doi = {10.1029/JB086iB04p02825},
	abstract = {It is possible to use the waveform data not only to derive the source mechanism of an earthquake but also to establish the hypocentral coordinates of the ‘best point source’ (the centroid of the stress glut density) at a given frequency. Thus two classical problems of seismology are combined into a single procedure. Given an estimate of the origin time, epicentral coordinates and depth, an initial moment tensor is derived using one of the variations of the method described in detail by Gilbert and Dziewonski (1975). This set of parameters represents the starting values for an iterative procedure in which perturbations to the elements of the moment tensor are found simultaneously with changes in the hypocentral parameters. In general, the method is stable, and convergence rapid. Although the approach is a general one, we present it here in the context of the analysis of long‐period body wave data recorded by the instruments of the {SRO} and {ASRO} digital network. It appears that the upper magnitude limit of earthquakes that can be processed using this particular approach is between 7.5 and 8.0; the lower limit is, at this time, approximately 5.5, but it could be extended by broadening the passband of the analysis to include energy with periods shorter that 45 s. As there are hundreds of earthquakes each year with magnitudes exceeding 5.5, the seismic source mechanism can now be studied in detail not only for major events but also, for example, for aftershock series. We have investigated the foreshock and several aftershocks of the Sumba earthquake of August 19, 1977; the results show temporal variation of the stress regime in the fault area of the main shock. An area some 150 km to the northwest of the epicenter of the main event became seismically active 49 days later. The sense of the strike‐slip mechanism of these events is consistent with the relaxation of the compressive stress in the plate north of the Java trench. Another geophysically interesting result of our analysis is that for 5 out of 11 earthquakes of intermediate and great depth the intermediate principal value of the moment tensor is significant, while for the remaining 6 it is essentially zero, which means that their mechanisms are consistent with a simple double‐couple representation. There is clear distinction between these two groups of earthquakes.},
	pages = {2825--2852},
	issue = {B4},
	journaltitle = {J. Geophys. Res.},
	author = {Dziewonski, A. M. and Chou, T.‐A. and Woodhouse, J. H.},
	urldate = {2023-11-14},
	date = {1981-04-10},
	langid = {english},
}

@article{ekstrom_global_2012,
	title = {The global {CMT} project 2004–2010: Centroid-moment tensors for 13,017 earthquakes},
	volume = {200-201},
	issn = {00319201},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0031920112000696},
	doi = {10.1016/j.pepi.2012.04.002},
	shorttitle = {The global {CMT} project 2004–2010},
	pages = {1--9},
	journaltitle = {Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors},
	author = {Ekström, G. and Nettles, M. and Dziewoński, A.M.},
	urldate = {2023-11-14},
	date = {2012-06},
	langid = {english},
}

@article{chandra_seismicity_1975,
	title = {Seismicity, Earthquake Mechanisms and Tectonics of Burma, 20 N-28 N},
	volume = {40},
	issn = {0956-540X, 1365-246X},
	url = {https://academic.oup.com/gji/article-lookup/doi/10.1111/j.1365-246X.1975.tb04138.x},
	doi = {10.1111/j.1365-246X.1975.tb04138.x},
	pages = {367--381},
	number = {3},
	journaltitle = {Geophysical Journal International},
	author = {Chandra, Umesh},
	urldate = {2023-11-14},
	date = {1975-03-01},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Full Text:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\FQMPT77X\\Chandra - 1975 - Seismicity, Earthquake Mechanisms and Tectonics of.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{molnar_focal_1983,
	title = {Focal depths and fault plane solutions of earthquakes under the Tibetan Plateau},
	volume = {88},
	issn = {0148-0227},
	url = {https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/JB088iB02p01180},
	doi = {10.1029/JB088iB02p01180},
	abstract = {We compare synthetic and recorded P wave forms to place constraints on the focal depths and fault plane solutions of 16 crustal earthquakes beneath the highest parts ({\textgreater}4000 m) of the Tibetan plateau. Fault plane solutions for all 16 events show combinations of normal and strike slip faulting with T axes oriented approximately east–west. None of these solutions show thrust faulting. Thus the data corroborate previous inferences that the active tectonics are dominated by east–west extension. Focal depths for all 16 events are less than 15 km and appear to be between 5 and 10 km. This style of deformation and these depths of faulting are similar to those in the Basin and Range province of the western United States. Two intermediate depth events below the crust of southern Tibet also show primarily normal faulting with east–west T axes. The solution for one, discussed by Chen et al. (1981), is unambiguous. The solution for the other, the event of August 1, 1973 (27.59°N, 89.17°E, 85±10 km, m
              b
              = 4.9) is less certain. Both apparently occurred in the mantle beneath a thick, aseismic lower crust, and their occurrence suggests that brittle deformation occurs there in response to a stress field similar to that operating at shallow depths beneath Tibet.},
	pages = {1180--1196},
	issue = {B2},
	journaltitle = {J. Geophys. Res.},
	author = {Molnar, Peter and Chen, Wang‐Ping},
	urldate = {2023-11-14},
	date = {1983-02-10},
	langid = {english},
}

@article{khattri_kinnaur_1978,
	title = {The Kinnaur earthquake, Himachal Pradesh, India, of 19 January, 1975},
	volume = {49},
	issn = {00401951},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0040195178900951},
	doi = {10.1016/0040-1951(78)90095-1},
	pages = {1--21},
	number = {1},
	journaltitle = {Tectonophysics},
	author = {Khattri, K. and Rai, K. and Jain, A.K. and Sinvhal, H. and Gaur, V.K. and Mithal, R.S.},
	urldate = {2023-11-14},
	date = {1978-08},
	langid = {english},
}

@article{tandon_focal_1975,
	title = {Focal mechanisms of some recent Himalayan earthquakes and regional plate tectonics},
	volume = {65},
	issn = {1943-3573, 0037-1106},
	url = {https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/bssa/article/65/4/963/117456/Focal-mechanisms-of-some-recent-Himalayan},
	doi = {10.1785/BSSA0650040963},
	abstract = {Abstract
            Focal mechanism solutions of 12 recent earthquakes along the northern boundary of the Indian-Eurasian plates, from Hindukush to Burma, have been determined assuming the double-couple hypothesis. It has been found that the majority of earthquakes are of thrust type with the pressure directions acting at right angles to the faults/mountains, but, for a few of the earthquakes the orientations of the pressure directions are almost along the strike of the faults. Such observations could be partly explained in terms of the concept of “flake tectonics” as proposed for continent-continent collisions. A number of earthquakes in the eastern Himalayas and Burma show normal dip-slip or predominantly strike-slip movements. These anomalies call for further refinements of the plate theory in this zone of complicated deformation.},
	pages = {963--969},
	number = {4},
	journaltitle = {Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America},
	author = {Tandon, A. N. and Srivastava, H. N.},
	urldate = {2023-11-14},
	date = {1975-08-01},
	langid = {english},
}

@article{chandra_fault-plane_1975,
	title = {Fault-plane solution and tectonic implications of the Pattan, Pakistan earthquake of December 28, 1974},
	volume = {28},
	pages = {T19--T24},
	number = {3},
	journaltitle = {Tectonophysics},
	author = {Chandra, Umesh},
	date = {1975},
}

@article{chandra_stationary_1970,
	title = {Stationary phase approximation in focal mechanism determination},
	volume = {60},
	issn = {1943-3573, 0037-1106},
	url = {https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/bssa/article/60/4/1221/116818/Stationary-phase-approximation-in-focal-mechanism},
	doi = {10.1785/BSSA0600041221},
	abstract = {abstract
            Tests of the stationary phase approximation method applied to P waves for the determination of focal mechanisms have been carried through for eight earthquakes selected from different geographic locations and depth ranges. The results are found to be in close agreement with the solutions obtained from S-wave polarization data for four earthquakes and in reasonable agreement for three earthquakes. In general, however, the P polarities are more consistent with S-wave polarization solutions than with the solutions obtained by the present method. The stationary phase solutions agree with the P-wave spectrum solutions determined in a previous study. The method is applicable to shallow-focus earthquakes, and to earthquakes of large magnitude in which methods using S-wave polarization data and P-wave spectra are difficult to apply.},
	pages = {1221--1229},
	number = {4},
	journaltitle = {Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America},
	author = {Chandra, Umesh},
	urldate = {2023-11-14},
	date = {1970-08-01},
	langid = {english},
}

@article{chandra_combination_1971,
	title = {Combination of \textit{P} and \textit{S} data for the determination of earthquake focal mechanism},
	volume = {61},
	issn = {1943-3573, 0037-1106},
	url = {https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/bssa/article/61/6/1655/117014/Combination-of-P-and-S-data-for-the-determination},
	doi = {10.1785/BSSA0610061655},
	abstract = {abstract
            A method has been proposed for the combination of P-wave first-motion directions and S-wave polarization data for the numerical determination of earthquake focal mechanism. The method takes into account the influence of nearness of stations with inconsistent P-wave polarity observations, with respect to the assumed nodal planes. The mechanism solutions for six earthquakes selected from different geographic locations and depth ranges have been determined. Equal area projections of the nodal planes together with the P-wave first-motion and S-wave polarization data are presented for each earthquake. The quality of resolution of nodal plane determination on the basis of P-wave data, S-wave polarization, and the combination of P and S-wave data according to the present method, is discussed.},
	pages = {1655--1673},
	number = {6},
	journaltitle = {Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America},
	author = {Chandra, Umesh},
	urldate = {2023-11-14},
	date = {1971-12-01},
	langid = {english},
}

@article{replumaz_eastwest_2012,
	title = {East–west shortening during north–south convergence, example of the {NW} Himalayan syntaxis},
	volume = {59},
	issn = {0812-0099, 1440-0952},
	url = {http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08120099.2012.701232},
	doi = {10.1080/08120099.2012.701232},
	pages = {845--858},
	number = {6},
	journaltitle = {Australian Journal of Earth Sciences},
	author = {Replumaz, A. and Vignon, V. and Regard, V. and Martinod, J. and Guerrero, N.},
	urldate = {2024-04-04},
	date = {2012-08},
	langid = {english},
}

@article{niu_geological_2018,
	title = {Geological understanding of plate tectonics: Basic concepts, illustrations, examples and new perspectives},
	volume = {10},
	issn = {0163-3171},
	url = {http://www.schweizerbart.de/papers/gtm/detail/10/84397/Geological_understanding_of_plate_tectonics_Basic_?af=crossref},
	doi = {10.1127/gtm/2014/0009},
	shorttitle = {Geological understanding of plate tectonics},
	pages = {23--46},
	number = {1},
	journaltitle = {gtm},
	author = {Niu, Yaoling},
	urldate = {2024-05-12},
	date = {2018-05-01},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Full Text:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\77P57ZQB\\Niu - 2018 - Geological understanding of plate tectonics Basic.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{windley_uniformitarianism_1993,
	title = {Uniformitarianism today: plate tectonics is the key to the past},
	volume = {150},
	issn = {0016-7649, 2041-479X},
	url = {https://www.lyellcollection.org/doi/10.1144/gsjgs.150.1.0007},
	doi = {10.1144/gsjgs.150.1.0007},
	shorttitle = {Uniformitarianism today},
	abstract = {James Hutton published the first two volumes of
              The Theory of the Earth
              in 1795 and the third volume was published posthumously by the Geological Society in 1899. Charles Lyell in his four addresses (1836, 1837, 1850, 1851) to the Society put the uniformitarian paradigm of Hutton (the present is the key to the past) into the perspective of his era. Uniformitarianism today can be expressed in the view that plate tectonics is the key to the past. This paper summarizes key data and ideas which confirm that the plate tectonic paradigm can be applied convincingly back to the beginning of the geological record. In spite of the fact that heat production was greater in the early Precambrian than now, tectonophysical and geochemical processes that produced oceanic and continental rocks since the early Archaean have not been fundamentally different from those that operate today.},
	pages = {7--19},
	number = {1},
	journaltitle = {{JGS}},
	author = {Windley, Brian F.},
	urldate = {2024-08-03},
	date = {1993-01},
	langid = {english},
}

@article{palin_plate_2021,
	title = {Plate tectonics: What, where, why, and when?},
	volume = {100},
	issn = {1342937X},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1342937X20302847},
	doi = {10.1016/j.gr.2020.11.001},
	shorttitle = {Plate tectonics},
	pages = {3--24},
	journaltitle = {Gondwana Research},
	author = {Palin, Richard M. and Santosh, M.},
	urldate = {2024-08-03},
	date = {2021-12},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Submitted Version:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\SXYQLJCK\\Palin and Santosh - 2021 - Plate tectonics What, where, why, and when.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@incollection{mcelhinny_phanerozoic_1981,
	location = {Washington, D. C.},
	title = {Phanerozoic palaeomagnetism of the Indian plate and the India-Asia collision},
	volume = {2},
	isbn = {978-0-87590-511-2},
	url = {http://www.agu.org/books/gd/v002/GD002p0093/GD002p0093.shtml},
	pages = {93--105},
	booktitle = {Geodynamics Series},
	publisher = {American Geophysical Union},
	author = {Klootwijk, C. T. and Radhakrishnamurty, C.},
	editor = {{McElhinny}, M. W. and Valencio, D. A.},
	urldate = {2024-08-03},
	date = {1981},
	langid = {english},
	doi = {10.1029/GD002p0093},
}

@article{hodges_tectonics_2000,
	title = {Tectonics of the Himalaya and southern Tibet from two perspectives},
	volume = {112},
	issn = {0016-7606, 1943-2674},
	url = {https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsabulletin/article/112/3/324-350/183584},
	doi = {10.1130/0016-7606(2000)112<324:TOTHAS>2.0.CO;2},
	pages = {324--350},
	number = {3},
	journaltitle = {Geological Society of America Bulletin},
	author = {Hodges, K. V.},
	urldate = {2024-08-03},
	date = {2000-03-01},
	langid = {english},
}

@article{paul_threedimensional_2017,
	title = {Three‐Dimensional Crustal Architecture Beneath the Sikkim Himalaya and Its Relationship to Active Deformation},
	volume = {122},
	rights = {http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/{termsAndConditions}\#vor},
	issn = {2169-9313, 2169-9356},
	url = {https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/2017JB014506},
	doi = {10.1002/2017JB014506},
	abstract = {Abstract
            
              We study the 3‐D variation of the crustal structure of the Sikkim Himalaya using broadband seismological data acquired from a focused network of seven stations spanning the Lesser, Higher, and Tethyan Himalaya. Common conversion point stacking of receiver functions recorded along an across‐strike profile of the Himalaya reveals first‐order northward dip on the Main Himalayan Thrust ({MHT}), a midcrustal discontinuity and the Moho, along with higher‐order lateral variations. Three‐dimensional images generated from joint inversion of receiver functions and surface wave dispersions show that the {MHT} has a ramp‐flat‐ramp geometry. The ramps are located beneath the Lesser Himalaya and the Tethyan Himalaya with dips of ∼7
              ∘
              and ∼15
              ∘
              , respectively, connected by flat segments. The ramp beneath the Lesser Himalaya forms a dome structure, upwarping the thrust sheets associated with the Peling and Main Central Thrust. The erosional surface of this dome forms the arcuate geometry of thrusts observed in the Lesser Himalaya. The thickness of the underthrust Indian crust is 35–42 km and has an average
              V
              
                S
              
              of 3.63 km/s, similar to that of the Indian Shield crust. The Moho also has dome‐like structures separated by elongated, deeper sections trending {NW}‐{SE}. These are intersected by steeply dipping transverse low‐velocity zones, oblique to the strike of the Himalaya. We conjecture that these low‐velocity zones are the dextral‐strike slip faults known to be active beneath the Sikkim Himalaya. The observed alternate shallow and deep segments of the Moho must be a consequence of several cycles of strike‐slip displacement on these transverse faults.
            
          , 
            Plain Language Summary
            Sikkim is an Indian state between Nepal and Bhutan. The style of convergence between India and Eurasia changes from head‐on collision (Nepal Himalaya) to oblique convergence (Eastern Himalaya) across this region (Sikkim Himalaya). We study the crustal structure of this region using broadband seismological data recorded by a local network of stations. The Main Himalayan Thrust ({MHT}) separates the downgoing Indian Plate from the overriding Himalayan wedge. The {MHT} and the other major discontinuities within the crust, viz., the Moho and the midcrustal discontinuity are seen to dip northward. But all of these discontinuities also have higher‐order lateral variations. The {MHT} has a ramp‐flat‐ramp geometry with two ramps in the Lesser Himalaya and the Tethyan Himalaya, respectively. The ramp in the Lesser Himalaya is like a dome and upwarps the overlying thrust faults. The thickness and average shear wave velocity of underthrusting Indian crust is very similar to that of the Peninsular Indian crust. The Moho also has dome‐like structure separated by elongated, deeper sections trending {NW}‐{SE}. We conjecture that these alternate shallow and deep segments of the Moho are a consequence of several cycles of strike‐slip displacements on transverse faults known to be active here.
          , 
            Key Points
            
              
                
                  Importance of the 3‐D deformation of the crust in the continent‐continent collision regime is highlighted
                
                
                  Clear observation of the ramp‐flat‐ramp geometry of the {MHT} has been made as well that of the regional scale heterogeneity within the crust
                
                
                  The Role of transverse tectonics in shaping the observed structure in the Sikkim Himalaya is proposed},
	pages = {7860--7878},
	number = {10},
	journaltitle = {{JGR} Solid Earth},
	author = {Paul, Himangshu and Mitra, Supriyo},
	urldate = {2024-08-03},
	date = {2017-10},
	langid = {english},
}

@article{bollinger_stress_2004-1,
	title = {Stress buildup in the Himalaya},
	volume = {109},
	rights = {http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/{termsAndConditions}\#vor},
	issn = {0148-0227},
	url = {https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2003JB002911},
	doi = {10.1029/2003JB002911},
	abstract = {The seismic cycle on a major fault involves long periods of elastic strain and stress accumulation, driven by aseismic ductile deformation at depth, ultimately released by sudden fault slip events. Coseismic slip distributions are generally heterogeneous with most of the energy being released in the rupture of asperities. Since, on the long term, the fault's walls generally do not accumulate any significant permanent deformation, interseismic deformation might be heterogeneous, revealing zones of focused stress buildup. The pattern of current deformation along the Himalayan arc, which is known to produce recurring devastating earthquakes, and where several seismic gaps have long been recognized, might accordingly show significant lateral variations, providing a possible explanation for the uneven microseismic activity along the Himalayan arc. By contrast, the geodetic measurements show a rather uniform pattern of interseismic strain, oriented consistently with long‐term geological deformation, as indicated from stretching lineation. We show that the geodetic data and seismicity distribution are reconciled from a model in which microseismicity is interpreted as driven by stress buildup increase in the interseismic period. The uneven seismicity pattern is shown to reflect the impact of the topography on the stress field, indicating low deviatoric stresses ({\textless}35 {MPa}) and a low friction ({\textless}0.3) on the Main Himalayan Thrust. Arc‐normal thrusting along the Himalayan front and east‐west extension in southern Tibet are quantitatively reconciled by the model.},
	issue = {B11},
	journaltitle = {J. Geophys. Res.},
	author = {Bollinger, L. and Avouac, J. P. and Cattin, R. and Pandey, M. R.},
	urldate = {2024-10-16},
	date = {2004-11},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Full Text:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\UBUC7VT7\\Bollinger et al. - 2004 - Stress buildup in the Himalaya.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{villasenor_toward_1997,
	title = {Toward a comprehensive catalog of global historical seismicity},
	volume = {78},
	rights = {http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/{termsAndConditions}\#vor},
	issn = {0096-3941, 2324-9250},
	url = {https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/97EO00346},
	doi = {10.1029/97EO00346},
	abstract = {The United States Geological Survey ({USGS}) and the Colorado School of Mines ({CSM}) have initiated a project to locate more accurately all earthquakes recorded by instruments during the period 1900 to 1963. Seismicity for this period (hereafter referred to as historical seismicity, following
              Lee et al
              . [1988]) is still poorly understood, even for basic parameters such as earthquake locations (see Figure 1). In some cases this is the result of inherent limitations in the distribution, response characteristics, and timing of the instruments. However, locations for most of the pre‐1964 earthquakes are poorly determined simply because modern data analysis techniques have yet to be applied to the available arrival‐time observations, which are mainly preserved as printed bulletins and not in a computer‐ready digital format. The arduous task of hand‐entering these data has prevented the systematic analysis and relocation of historical seismicity.},
	pages = {581--588},
	number = {50},
	journaltitle = {{EoS} Transactions},
	author = {Villaseñor, {AntonioAntonio} and Bergman, Eric A. and Boyd, Thomas M. and Engdahl, E. Robert and Frazier, David W. and Harden, Margo M. and Orth, Jennifer L. and Parkes, Richard L. and Shedlock, Kaye M.},
	urldate = {2024-10-17},
	date = {1997-12-16},
	langid = {english},
}

@article{arora_structural_2012-1,
	title = {Structural control on along-strike variation in the seismicity of the northwest Himalaya},
	volume = {57},
	rights = {https://www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/},
	issn = {13679120},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1367912012002490},
	doi = {10.1016/j.jseaes.2012.06.001},
	pages = {15--24},
	journaltitle = {Journal of Asian Earth Sciences},
	author = {Arora, B.R. and Gahalaut, V.K. and Kumar, Naresh},
	urldate = {2024-10-17},
	date = {2012-09},
	langid = {english},
}

@article{thakur_seismotectonics_2019-1,
	title = {Seismotectonics of central and {NW} Himalaya: plate boundary–wedge thrust earthquakes in thin- and thick-skinned tectonic framework},
	volume = {481},
	issn = {0305-8719, 2041-4927},
	url = {https://www.lyellcollection.org/doi/10.1144/SP481.8},
	doi = {10.1144/SP481.8},
	shorttitle = {Seismotectonics of central and {NW} Himalaya},
	abstract = {Abstract
            
              The tectonic framework of {NW} Himalaya is different from that of the central Himalaya with respect to the position of the Main Central Thrust and Higher Himalayan Crystalline and the Lesser and Sub Himalayan structures. The former is characterized by thick-skinned tectonics, whereas the thin-skinned model explains the tectonic evolution of the central Himalaya. The boundary between the two segments of Himalaya is recognized along the Ropar–Manali lineament fault zone. The normal convergence rate within the Himalaya decreases from
              c.
              18 mm a
              −1
              in the central to
              c.
              15 mm a
              −1
              in the {NW} segments. In the last 800 years of historical accounts of large earthquakes of magnitude M
              w
              ≥ 7, there are seven earthquakes clustered in the central Himalaya, whereas three reported earthquakes are widely separated in the {NW} Himalaya. The earthquakes in central Himalaya are inferred as occurring over the plate boundary fault, the Main Himalayan Thrust. The wedge thrust earthquakes in {NW} Himalaya originate over the faults on the hanging wall of the Main Himalayan Thrust. Palaeoseismic evidence recorded on the Himalayan front suggests the occurrence of giant earthquakes in the central Himalaya. The lack of such an event reported in the {NW} Himalaya may be due to oblique convergence.},
	pages = {41--63},
	number = {1},
	journaltitle = {{SP}},
	author = {Thakur, V. C. and Jayangondaperumal, R. and Joevivek, V.},
	urldate = {2024-10-17},
	date = {2019-09-25},
	langid = {english},
}

@article{bath_earthquake_1981,
	title = {Earthquake magnitude — recent research and current trends},
	volume = {17},
	rights = {https://www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/},
	issn = {00128252},
	url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0012825281900143},
	doi = {10.1016/0012-8252(81)90014-3},
	pages = {315--398},
	number = {4},
	journaltitle = {Earth-Science Reviews},
	author = {Båth, Markus},
	urldate = {2024-10-17},
	date = {1981-11},
	langid = {english},
}

@article{richter_instrumental_1935,
	title = {An instrumental earthquake magnitude scale*},
	volume = {25},
	issn = {1943-3573, 0037-1106},
	url = {https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/ssa/bssa/article/25/1/1/115102/An-instrumental-earthquake-magnitude-scale},
	doi = {10.1785/BSSA0250010001},
	abstract = {Abstract
            
              Summary},
	pages = {1--32},
	number = {1},
	journaltitle = {Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America},
	author = {Richter, Charles F.},
	urldate = {2024-10-17},
	date = {1935-01-01},
	langid = {english},
}

@article{gutenberg_magnitude_1955,
	title = {Magnitude and Energy of Earthquakes},
	volume = {176},
	rights = {http://www.springer.com/tdm},
	issn = {0028-0836, 1476-4687},
	url = {https://www.nature.com/articles/176795a0},
	doi = {10.1038/176795a0},
	pages = {795--795},
	number = {4486},
	journaltitle = {Nature},
	author = {Gutenberg, B. and Richter, C. F.},
	urldate = {2024-10-17},
	date = {1955-10},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Full Text:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\TBMGQ9F9\\Gutenberg and Richter - 1955 - Magnitude and Energy of Earthquakes.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{sobolev_microseismic_2007,
	title = {Microseismic anomalies before the Sumatra earthquake of December 26, 2004},
	volume = {43},
	rights = {http://www.springer.com/tdm},
	issn = {1069-3513, 1555-6506},
	url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1134/S1069351307050011},
	doi = {10.1134/S1069351307050011},
	pages = {341--353},
	number = {5},
	journaltitle = {Izv., Phys. Solid Earth},
	author = {Sobolev, G. A. and Lyubushin, A. A.},
	urldate = {2024-10-17},
	date = {2007-05},
	langid = {english},
}

@book{rao_linear_1973,
	edition = {1},
	title = {Linear Statistical Inference and its Applications: Second Editon},
	rights = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/tdm\_license\_1.1},
	isbn = {978-0-471-70823-0 978-0-470-31643-6},
	url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9780470316436},
	series = {Wiley Series in Probability and Statistics},
	shorttitle = {Linear Statistical Inference and its Applications},
	publisher = {Wiley},
	author = {Rao, C. Radhakrishna},
	urldate = {2024-10-17},
	date = {1973-04-13},
	langid = {english},
	doi = {10.1002/9780470316436},
}

@article{molnar_review_1990,
	title = {A Review of the Seismicity and the Rates of Active under Thrusting and Deformation at the Himalaya},
	volume = {1},
	pages = {131--154},
	journaltitle = {Journal of Himalayan Geology},
	author = {Molnar, P.},
	date = {1990},
}

@article{singh_kinnaur_1976,
	title = {The Kinnaur earthquake of January 19, 1975: A field report},
	volume = {66},
	issn = {1943-3573, 0037-1106},
	url = {https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/bssa/article/66/3/887/117648/The-Kinnaur-earthquake-of-January-19-1975-A-field},
	doi = {10.1785/BSSA0660030887},
	shorttitle = {The Kinnaur earthquake of January 19, 1975},
	abstract = {abstract
            On January 19, 1975 an earthquake of magnitude 6.8 occurred in the border districts of Himachal Pradesh, India. The earthquake caused considerable loss of life and varying degrees of damage to construction in the area. Traditional and recent buildings suffered extensive damage. Landslides, rock falls and avalanches caused considerable damage to the Hindustan-Tibet road. Extensive fissures in the ground developed at the epicenter. Greatest damage was noted along the N-S trending Kaurik-Chango fault following the Parachu and Spiti river valleys, suggesting its genetic interrelationship with the earthquake.},
	pages = {887--901},
	number = {3},
	journaltitle = {Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America},
	author = {Singh, S. and Jain, A. K. and Sinha, P. and Singh, V. N. and Srivastava, L. S.},
	urldate = {2024-10-17},
	date = {1976-06-01},
	langid = {english},
}

@book{wegener_origin_1966,
	location = {New York},
	edition = {Dover edition},
	title = {The origin of continents and oceans},
	isbn = {978-0-486-61708-4},
	publisher = {Dover Publications, Inc.},
	editora = {Wegener, Alfred and Biram, John},
	editoratype = {collaborator},
	date = {1966},
	note = {{OCLC}: 1236067173},
}


@article{macfarlane_structural_1992,
	title = {A structural analysis of the Main Central Thrust zone, Langtang National Park, central Nepal Himalaya},
	volume = {104},
	issn = {00167606},
	url = {https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsabulletin/article/104/11/1389-1402/182639},
	doi = {10.1130/0016-7606(1992)104<1389:ASAOTM>2.3.CO;2},
	pages = {1389--1402},
	number = {11},
	journaltitle = {Geological Society of America Bulletin},
	author = {Macfarlane, A. M. and Hodges, K. V. and Lux, D.},
	urldate = {2024-10-17},
	date = {1992-11},
}

@article{molnar_cenozoic_1975,
	title = {Cenozoic Tectonics of Asia: Effects of a Continental Collision: Features of recent continental tectonics in Asia can be interpreted as results of the India-Eurasia collision},
	volume = {189},
	issn = {0036-8075, 1095-9203},
	url = {https://www.sciencemag.org/lookup/doi/10.1126/science.189.4201.419},
	doi = {10.1126/science.189.4201.419},
	shorttitle = {Cenozoic Tectonics of Asia},
	pages = {419--426},
	number = {4201},
	journaltitle = {Science},
	author = {Molnar, P. and Tapponnier, P.},
	urldate = {2024-11-01},
	date = {1975-08-08},
	langid = {english},
}

@article{babu_stress_2024,
	title = {Stress regimes in the Himalaya–Karakoram–Tibet, the western part of India–Eurasia collision: stress field implications based on focal mechanism solution data},
	volume = {239},
	rights = {https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/},
	issn = {0956-540X, 1365-246X},
	url = {https://academic.oup.com/gji/article/239/3/1380/7750637},
	doi = {10.1093/gji/ggae323},
	shorttitle = {Stress regimes in the Himalaya–Karakoram–Tibet, the western part of India–Eurasia collision},
	abstract = {{SUMMARY}
            The stress regime patterns of high-seismically active regions within the western part of the India–Eurasia collision, spanning from 67° E to 83° E and 27° N to 39° N, are elucidated through analysis of 684 Focal Mechanism Solutions from 1962 to 2021. Eighteen seismically active zones used for the stress tensor inversion, are defined based on the spatial extent of the seismicity, the depth distribution of seismic events, focal mechanism studies, and seismotectonics of the region. The defined regimes are: (1) Sulaiman Ranges and Lobe Region, (2) Hindukush, (3) Pamir, (4) Nanga Parbat Syntaxis, (5) Hazara Syntaxis, (6) Kashmir–Zanskar region, (7) Kangra–Chamba, (8) Kinnaur and Kaurik–Chango fault zone ({KCFZ}), (9) Garhwal, (10) Kumaon, (11) Karakoram fault zone, and (12) Gozha–Ashikule fault zone. Seismicity is reported only in the crust or up to mid-crust in most of the regions, except for the Pamir and Hindukush, where the seismicity can be observed down to 160 and 280 km, respectively. We report a clockwise rotation of the maximum horizontal stress ({SHmax}) of about 42° and 21° in the Hindukush and Pamir regions, respectively. with increasing focal depths from north west to north. The region where major and strong earthquakes occur indicates pure compressive regimes. Most of the zones support transpressive and transtensional tectonics with a few zones by normal and strike-slip fault regimes. Regions like Nanga Parbat syntaxis, Kinnaur, {KCFZ}, and Zanskar are exceptions, where extensional and transformational tectonic features dominate. Plate convergence force has less effect on defining the stress regime in the Karakoram fault zone and Gozha–Ashikule regions, which display transtensional and pure extensional regimes, respectively. Underthrusting of the Indian plate through complex tectonics is indicated by dominant compression stresses with evidences of normal, strike-slip, and oblique fault mechanisms.},
	pages = {1380--1399},
	number = {3},
	journaltitle = {Geophysical Journal International},
	author = {Babu, Vivek G and Kumar, Naresh and Pal, Sanjit Kumar},
	urldate = {2024-11-01},
	date = {2024-10-07},
	langid = {english},
	file = {Full Text PDF:C\:\\Users\\VIVEK\\Zotero\\storage\\5PFI4TKP\\Babu et al. - 2024 - Stress regimes in the Himalaya–Karakoram–Tibet, the western part of India–Eurasia collision stress.pdf:application/pdf},
}

@article{dziewonski_span_1969,
	title = {{\textless}span style="font-variant:small-caps;"{\textgreater}A technique for the analysis of transient seismic signals{\textless}/span{\textgreater}},
	volume = {59},
	issn = {1943-3573, 0037-1106},
	url = {https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/bssa/article/59/1/427/101646/A-technique-for-the-analysis-of-transient-seismic},
	doi = {10.1785/BSSA0590010427},
	shorttitle = {{\textless}span style="font-variant},
	abstract = {Abstract
            An analytical method, called the “multiple filter technique,” is shown to be a fast and efficient means of studying multi-mode dispersed signals. Amplitudes and phases, as functions of period and velocity, are determined from the output of a set of narrow-band digital filters. The group velocities and other dispersion parameters determined by this technique are concordant with theoretical values when the method is tested with synthetic seismograms. It can recover broader portions of the dispersion present in ordinary seismic recordings compared to the classical peak and trough method. A simple diagnostic diagram is introduced in order to study the time and frequency resolution permitted by this analytic technique.},
	pages = {427--444},
	number = {1},
	journaltitle = {Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America},
	author = {Dziewonski, A. and Bloch, S. and Landisman, M.},
	urldate = {2024-11-01},
	date = {1969-02-01},
	langid = {english},
}

@article{bhattacharya_exact_1972,
	title = {Exact solutions {ofSH} wave equation in transversely isotropic inhomogeneous elastic media},
	volume = {93},
	rights = {https://www.springernature.com/gp/researchers/text-and-data-mining},
	issn = {0033-4553, 1420-9136},
	url = {https://link.springer.com/10.1007/BF00875218},
	doi = {10.1007/BF00875218},
	pages = {19--35},
	number = {1},
	journaltitle = {{PAGEOPH}},
	author = {Bhattacharya, S. N.},
	urldate = {2024-11-01},
	date = {1972-12},
	langid = {english},
}

@article{levshin_frequency-time_1972,
	title = {On a frequency-time analysis of oscillations},
	volume = {28},
	pages = {211--218},
	author = {Levshin,, A. and Ritzwoller, M. H. and Pogrebinsky, G. A.},
	date = {1972},
}

@article{levshin_peculiarities_1992,
	title = {Peculiarities of surface wave propagation across central Eurasia},
	volume = {82},
	pages = {2464--2493},
	journaltitle = {Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America},
	author = {{LEVSHIN},, A.L. and {RATNIKOVA},, L. and {BERGER},, J.},
	date = {1992},
}

@article{herrmann_computer_2013,
	title = {Computer Programs in Seismology: An Evolving Tool for Instruction and Research},
	volume = {84},
	issn = {0895-0695, 1938-2057},
	url = {https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/srl/article/84/6/1081-1088/315307},
	doi = {10.1785/0220110096},
	shorttitle = {Computer Programs in Seismology},
	pages = {1081--1088},
	number = {6},
	journaltitle = {Seismological Research Letters},
	author = {Herrmann, R. B.},
	urldate = {2024-11-01},
	date = {2013-11-01},
	langid = {english},
}

@article{ratnikova_frequencytime_1990,
	title = {Frequency–time analysis of surface waves In: Workshop on Earthquake Sources and Regional Lithospheric Structures from Seismic Wave Data.},
	pages = {1--12},
	journaltitle = {International Centre for Theoretical Physics},
	author = {{RATNIKOVA},, L.I.},
	date = {1990},
	note = {Trieste, Italy},
}

@article{raykova_surface_2006,
	title = {Surface wave tomography in Northern Apennines (Italy) derived from {RETREAT} records},
	volume = {8},
	number = {8223},
	journaltitle = {Geophysical Research Abstracts},
	author = {{RAYKOVA},, R. and {MORELLI},, A. and {PARK},, J. and {PONDRELLI},, S.},
	date = {2006},
}