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Lectures/1_Semester/Analytic_Geometry/2023_Podlipskij/lectures/lecture01.tex
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\section{Матрицы} | ||
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\subsection{Матрицы. Специальные виды матриц} | ||
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\begin{definition} | ||
$\textit{Матрицей m$\times$n}$ называется упорядоченный набор из $m \cdot n$ чисел, записанных в таблицу, состоящую из m строк и n столбцов. | ||
\end{definition} | ||
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\textbf{Обозначения:} | ||
\begin{itemize} | ||
\item A, B - матрицы | ||
\item (...), ||...|| - матрицы | ||
\item $a_{ij}$ - элемент матрица, расположенный в i-той строке j-того столбца | ||
\end{itemize} | ||
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\textbf{Специальные виды матриц} | ||
\begin{itemize} | ||
\item $\textit{строка}$ $-$ матрица, состоящая из 1 строки и n столбцов | ||
\item $\textit{столбец}$ $-$ матрица, состоящая из n строк и 1 столбца | ||
\item $\textit{квадратная}$ $-$ матрица, в которой количество строк равняется количеству столбцов | ||
\item $\textit{единичная}$ $-$ матрица, элементы главной диагонали которой являются единицами, а остальные $-$ нулями, обозначается буквой E | ||
\item $\textit{треугольная}$ $-$ матрица, у которой элементы над (нижняя треугольная) или под главной диагональю (верхняя треугольная) являются нулями | ||
\item $\textit{диагональная}$ $-$ матрица, у которой все элементы кроме элементов главной диагонали являются нулями, обозначается diag | ||
\item $\textit{симметрическая}$ $-$ матрица, элементы которой симметричны относительно главной диагонали | ||
\item $\textit{кососимметрическая}$ $-$ матрица, элементы которой симметричны относительно главной диагонали, но противоположны по знаку, элементы главной диагонали $-$ нули | ||
\item $\textit{нулевая}$ $-$ матрица, полностью состоящая из нулей | ||
\end{itemize} | ||
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При этом к квадратным матрицам относятся единичные, треугольные, диагональные, симметрические и кососимметрические. | ||
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\subsection{Операции над матрицами} | ||
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\begin{enumerate} | ||
\item A = B, если матрицы имеют одинаковые размеры и равны поэлементно | ||
\item Сложение $C_{m \times n} = A_{m \times n} + B_{m \times n}$ определено для матриц одного размера, при чём $c_{ij} = a_{ij} + b_{ij}$ | ||
\item Умножение матрицы A на число $\alpha \in \R$ $B = \alpha A, b_{ij} = \alpha a_{ij}$ | ||
\item Транспонирование матрицы $A_{m \times n}^T = B_{n \times m}$, где $b_{ij} = a_{ji}$ | ||
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\end{enumerate} | ||
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\textit{Свойства операций:} | ||
\begin{itemize} | ||
\item A + B = B + A | ||
\item A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C | ||
\item $\alpha$(A + B) = $\alpha$A + $\alpha$B | ||
\item ($\alpha\beta$)A = $\alpha(\beta A)$ | ||
\item ($\alpha + \beta$)A = $\alpha A + \beta A$ | ||
\item $A^T = A$ для симметрической матрицы | ||
\item $A^T = -A$ для кососимметрической матрицы | ||
\item $(A^T)^T = A$ | ||
\item $(A + B)^T = A^T + B^T$ | ||
\item $(\alpha A)^T = \alpha A^T$ | ||
\end{itemize} | ||
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\subsection{Определитель(детерминант) матрицы} | ||
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\begin{definition} | ||
$\textit{Определитель(детерминант) матрицы}$ $-$ функция или числовая характеристика квадратной матрицы. Обозначается как det A, |A|. | ||
\end{definition} | ||
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Определитель n-мерной матрицы вычисляется как | ||
\begin{enumerate} | ||
\item |$a_{11}$| = $a_{11}$, при n = 1 | ||
\item | ||
$\begin{vmatrix} | ||
a_{11} & a_{12}\\ | ||
a_{21} & a_{22}\\ | ||
\end{vmatrix}$ = $a_{11}a_{22}$ - $a_{12}a_{21}$, при n = 2 | ||
\item | ||
$\begin{vmatrix} | ||
a_{11} & a_{12} & a_{13}\\ | ||
a_{21} & a_{22} & a_{23}\\ | ||
a_{31} & a_{32} & a_{33}\\ | ||
\end{vmatrix}$ = $a_{11} | ||
\begin{vmatrix} | ||
a_{22} & a_{23}\\ | ||
a_{32} & a_{33}\\ | ||
\end{vmatrix}$ - $a_{12} | ||
\begin{vmatrix} | ||
a_{21} & a_{23}\\ | ||
a_{31} & a_{33}\\ | ||
\end{vmatrix}$ + $a_{13} | ||
\begin{vmatrix} | ||
a_{21} & a_{22}\\ | ||
a_{31} & a_{32}\\ | ||
\end{vmatrix}$ = $a_{11}a_{22}a_{33} + a_{12}a_{23}a_{31} + a_{13}a_{21}a_{32}$ - $a_{11}a_{23}a_{32}$ - $a_{12}a_{21}a_{33}$ - $a_{13}a_{22}a_{31}$, при n = 3 | ||
\end{enumerate} | ||
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\subsection{Решение систем линейных уравнений} | ||
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\begin{definition} | ||
$\textit{Система линейных уравнений}$ $-$ система уравнений вида\\ | ||
$\begin{cases} | ||
a_{11}x_1 + ... + a_{1n}x_n = b_1\\ | ||
...\\ | ||
a_{m1}x_1 + ... + a_{mn}x_n = b_m\\ | ||
\end{cases}$ | ||
\end{definition} | ||
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A = | ||
$\begin{pmatrix} | ||
a_{11} & ... & a_{1n}\\ | ||
... & ... & ...\\ | ||
a_{m1} & ... & a_{mn}\\ | ||
\end{pmatrix}$ $-$ матрица системы\\ | ||
\newline | ||
b = | ||
$\begin{pmatrix} | ||
b_{1}\\ | ||
...\\ | ||
b_{m}\\ | ||
\end{pmatrix}$ $-$ столбец свободных членов\\ | ||
\newline | ||
(A | b) = | ||
$\begin{pmatrix} | ||
a_{11} & ... & a_{1n} & | b_1\\ | ||
... & ... & ... & | ...\\ | ||
a_{m1} & ... & a_{mn} & | b_{m}\\ | ||
\end{pmatrix}$ $-$ расширенная матрица системы\\ | ||
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\newpage | ||
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$\textit{Совместная}$ система имеет хотя бы одно решение, иначе система считается $\textit{несовместной}$. | ||
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Система называется $\textit{однородной}$, если | ||
$\begin{pmatrix} | ||
b_1\\ | ||
...\\ | ||
b_m\\ | ||
\end{pmatrix}$ = | ||
$\begin{pmatrix} | ||
0\\ | ||
...\\ | ||
0\\ | ||
\end{pmatrix}$, иначе $\textit{неоднородной}$. | ||
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\begin{theorem} | ||
Однородная система всегда совместна. | ||
\end{theorem} | ||
\begin{proof} | ||
Если $x_1 = x_2 = ... = x_n = 0$, то система имеет решение. | ||
\end{proof} | ||
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$\textbf{Правило Крамера (для двухмерной матрицы)}$. Система | ||
$\begin{cases} | ||
a_{11}x_1 + a_{12}x_2 = b_1\\ | ||
a_{21}x_1 + a_{22}x_2 = b_2\\ | ||
\end{cases}$ имеет единстывенное решение $\longleftrightarrow$ det | ||
$\begin{pmatrix} | ||
a_{11} & a_{12}\\ | ||
a_{21} & a_{22}\\ | ||
\end{pmatrix}$ $\ne$ 0.\\ | ||
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Решения могут быть найдены по $\textit{формуле Крамера}$: | ||
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\begin{center} | ||
$ x_1 =\frac{\Delta_1}{\Delta}$, $x_2 = \frac{\Delta_2}{\Delta}$, где | ||
\end{center} | ||
$\Delta$ $-$ определитель матрицы системы;\\ | ||
$\Delta_1$ = | ||
$\begin{vmatrix} | ||
b_1 & a_{12}\\ | ||
b_2 & a_{22}\\ | ||
\end{vmatrix}$; | ||
$\Delta_2$ = | ||
$\begin{vmatrix} | ||
a_{11} & b_1\\ | ||
a_{21} & b_2\\ | ||
\end{vmatrix}$.\\ | ||
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\newline | ||
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\textit{Свойства детерминанта:} | ||
\begin{itemize} | ||
\item det $A^T$ = det A | ||
\item определитель треугольной (и диагональной) матрицы равен производонию диагональных элементов | ||
\item det E = 1 | ||
\item если поменять местами две строки, то детерминант умножится на -1 | ||
\item если в матрице есть нулевая строка, то det A = 0 | ||
\end{itemize} | ||
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\subsection{Умножение матриц} | ||
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Умножение определено только для матриц с количеством столбцов в первой, равным количеству строк во второй. | ||
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\begin{center} | ||
$\begin{pmatrix} | ||
a_1 & ... & a_n\\ | ||
\end{pmatrix}\cdot | ||
\begin{pmatrix*} | ||
b_1\\ | ||
...\\ | ||
b_n\\ | ||
\end{pmatrix*}$ = | ||
$\begin{pmatrix*} | ||
a_1 b_1 + ... + a_n b_n\\ | ||
\end{pmatrix*}$ | ||
\end{center} | ||
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Матрица C, являющаяся результатом умножения матрицы $A_{n \times m}$ на матрицу $B_{m \times k}$, имеет размеры $n \times k$, причём $c_{ij} = \sum_{S = 1}^{m} a_{is}b_{sj}$.\\ | ||
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Если AB = BA, то такие матрицы A и B называются $\textit{перестановочными}$. Так, единичная матрица является перестановочной с любой другой матрицей подходящего размера. | ||
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\begin{theorem} | ||
Если определено А(ВС), то определено и (AB)C, а результаты этих операций равны. | ||
\end{theorem} | ||
\begin{proof} | ||
Пусть матрицы А, В и С имеют размеры соответственно $m \times n, n \times p$ и $p \times q$. Тогда умножение для них определено и выполняется\\ | ||
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$\begin{cases} | ||
A \cdot (B \cdot C) = A \cdot (BC)_{n \times q} = (ABC)_{m \times q}\\ | ||
(A \cdot B) \cdot C = (AB)_{m \times p} \cdot C = (ABC)_{m \times q}\\ | ||
\end{cases}$ $\longrightarrow$ мы доказали равенство размеров.\\ | ||
\newline | ||
Докажем равенство элементов.\\ | ||
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\newline | ||
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$(AB)_{ij} = \sum_{k = 1}^{n} a_{ik}b_{kj}$, $(AB)C_{il} = \sum_{j = 1}^{p} (AB)_{ij} \cdot c_{jl} = \sum_{l = 1}^{p}(\sum_{k = 1}^{n} a_{ik}b_{k_j}) \cdot c_{jl} = \sum_{k = 1}^{n} a_{ik} \sum_{j = 1}^{p} b_{kj}c_{jl} = \sum_{k = 1}^{n} a_{ik} \cdot (BC)_{kl} = A(BC)_{il}$ | ||
\end{proof} |
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